eChapters

1. INTRODUCTION

When the fruits and vegetables are ready for the intended purpose, these have to be harvested. What is meant by harvesting and how the produce is harvested, what are the harvesting methods, how these are packaged in what type of packages have been discussed in this chapter.

2. HARVESTING

Harvesting of produce at proper maturity is of paramount importance for maintaining quality during storage and marketing. When the produce is harvested immature or over-mature, it will affect the quality and storage life adversely. After the proper maturity stage has reached, the produce needs to be harvested for various markets. While harvesting, it must however, be kept in mind that all horticultural produce (with the exception of some dry fruits/nuts) is very delicate and mishandling at harvesting may lead to mechanical injury, compression injury that is irretrievable. The injury on fruits/vegetables enhances ethylene production, moisture loss and serves as an entry point for a wide range of pathogens, hence causing quick loss in quality and storability of produce. The injury caused to the produce during harvesting not only spoils the commodity but also makes it unfit for long-term storage or long-distance transportation. Proper training to the labour engaged in harvesting on what to harvest, and how to harvest and the use of proper harvesting tools can reduce considerably the postharvest losses.

Introduction

Cereals and cereal products comprise a long history of consumption by humans. Cereals are the important source of nutrients and non nutritive health beneficial components and for that reason cereal based food products are consumed as staple food in human diet in developed as well as developing countries. The cereal grains mainly cultivated and consumed as food include rice, maize, wheat, sorghum rye, barley, oats, and millet. Products obtained from cereal grains are flours, grits, semolina, breakfast cereals, extruded product like pasta, puffs and flakes, and bakery products such as bread, biscuits, cakes and tortillas. Moreover, cereals or their components are used as ingredients in the preparation of various food products such as beverages infant foods coatings and processed meats. Initially cereals are consumed as whole or with minimal processing like boiling, grinding and roasting. However, processing like salting, drying, steeping and fermentation of cereals for preparation of cereals based beverages and foods has been practiced since the initiation of cereals consumption as food by human. Increasing consumer awareness and commercialization of cereal products have created interest of food manufacturers in utilization of novel and more efficient technologies with optimized conditions, development of convenient and more health beneficial foods with satisfactory sensory properties and wide variety of foods to ease the choice of consumers. Market full of diverse range of snack foods, breakfast cereals, ready to eat and ready to cook foods, and novel functional foods with variation in appearance, texture and flavor is an indication of evolution of food industry from basic to complicated form focused on efficient and automated operations. In ancient times, fermentation of food was done with the aim of enhancement of shelf life and palatability without clearly knowing the role of microorganisms. Modern fermentation technology uses various operations and specific strains of microorganisms for conversion of bulky and perishable materials into novel foods with more pleasing flavour, enhanced functional properties and extended shelf life. In addition to basic bread, new varieties of bread developed with improved functionality like sourdough bread, gluten free breads and high fibre breads is an example of innovation in cereal fermented foods indicating modification in ingredients, microbial culture and processing technologies as compare to traditional fermentation process. The word “extrudate” is derived from the Latin word “ex” meaning ‘out’ and “trudere” meaning ‘to thrust’. Extrusion technology is turning out to be very popular in food industry due to its versatility, usefulness and cost efficiency. It is well-organized state-of-art technology and plays important role in various food industrial processes such as cooking, mixing, conveying, shearing and shaping of end products. Extrusion cooking is high temperature short time (HTST) with high pressure process, is especially used for preparation of cereal based snacks, fat replacers, breakfast cereals, infant formula, gluten free foods, starch and protein rich cereals food products. A wider range of ready to eat food products with different texture, size and shape is produced by fast and easy extrusion cooking. In epidemiological studies it is stated that whole grain consumption is more health beneficial than refined grains and the reason behind it is that dietary fibre and phytochemicals located in germ and seed coat are generally removed during milling or polishing. Various technologies are developed by food scientists and technologists to preserves the bioactive compounds during processing and or to supplement processed food products with the bioactive compounds during food preparation to maintain the bioactivity and functionality of final products. Utilisation of whole grain flours, composite flours, supplementation of cereal foods with ingredients from fruits, vegetables, plant extracts and legumes, bio-fortification of crops, implementation of genetic engineering to produce crops rich in bioactive compounds are some technologies which are being used in modern food industry to develop value added cereal food products.

Introduction
Milk reception at the processing plant is a crucial stage in the dairy supply chain, as it serves as the first point of quality control and the gateway to further processing. The success of milk processing hinges on the careful handling, evaluation, and preparation of the raw milk upon arrival. The stringent protocols at reception ensure that only high-quality raw milk enters the system. By implementing advanced technology, strict hygienic standards, and efficient handling practices, processing plants can maintain milk’s safety and quality, setting the foundation for the production of superior quality dairy products. The intricate procedures at this stage safeguard consumers' trust and ensure compliance with regulatory requirements.
Milk is transported to dairy plants either in cans or in road/rail tankers. The designated area within the dairy plant where milk is first received, inspected, and graded for acceptance is referred to as the milk reception dock, platform, or raw milk receiving dock (RMRD). This reception dock is specifically designed and equipped to ensure the efficient handling of milk, enabling its swift unloading while also accommodating the cleaning and sterilization of used containers.
Since the quality of milk is a critical factor for its subsequent processing, the decision to accept or reject milk must be made promptly upon its arrival, following a thorough evaluation. The milk reception process should be meticulously planned, and the equipment must be selected to ensure efficient intake operations, particularly in facilities handling large milk volumes. Any delay can result in deterioration of milk before unloading, increased labour requirements, and higher operating costs. To avoid such issues, milk deliveries should adhere to a strict schedule, and the reception process should be completed within a stipulated time frame of time. This ensures seamless continuity of the dairy plant operations.

RECRUITMENT 
Recruitment is the process of identifying the prospective employees, stimulating and encouraging them to apply for a particular job or jobs in an organization. It is a positive action as it involves inviting people to apply. The purpose is to have an inventory of eligible persons from amongst whom proper selection of the most suitable person can be made.

The Process of Recruitment
Before thinking of inviting people to apply for a job one has to decide what types of persons are to be invited and what their characteristics should be. This calls for fixing the ‘job specifications’ which may also be called ‘man specifications’. Job specifications are based on job description which is dependent upon the nature and requirements of a job. 

Thus, job specification will be different for each job. The various elements of job specification are:

Introduction

In every industry main running factors are as Manpower, machine, material and money.

Money is main big factor for capital expenses as well as operating expenses. Beside this other driving force are man power who installed and run the any industry based on their skill level.

Every organization has their own organization structure to manage industrial operation based on product variant like market milk, curd, paneer, buttermilk, butter & ghee, ice cream etc. Basic dairy plant organization structure is shown in below table and HR department mainly keep in mind to recruit them based on functional requirement, educational qualification, professional experience etc.

Based on above manpower requirement and product variants, processing cost to be worked out.

Recruitment of Manpower

Manpower is major key component of any industry/organization to run efficiently. The dairy industry, being one of the most vital sectors of the global agricultural economy, relies heavily on a skilled and efficient workforce to sustain its operations. Manpower’s involvement starts from milk production at farm level to processing and marketing of value-added dairy products, every stage to ensure quality, productivity and compliance with industry standards. Recruitment and training of manpower, therefore, play a primary role in addressing the challenges of modern dairy operation, including technological advancements, quality assurance, and sustainability.

14.1. Introduction

There is a tremendous need to change the way society produces, and consumes materials to manage the environmental effect in the growing scarcity of resources. To overcome this issue, recycling process could be a great possibility that reduce the uses of natural resources, maximizethe waste utilization and produce least environmental impact. Unfortunately, packaging materials contribute 40% of solid waste in Western Europe, and 33% in US. In fact, packaging waste is likely to increase in transitioning and developing countries. Recycling process consists of collection, sorting, recovery, and management of packaging materials. As per the report of “Eurostat statistics in 2018”,European Union (EU) generates 174.1 kg of packaging waste per inhabitant, Croatia contributes 67.8 kg per inhabitant and Germany produce 227.5 kg per inhabitant.

Abstract
The growing global population has intensified farming practices, increasing the use of fossil fuels and agrochemicals. With limited land and the need to enhance food production, balancing environmental impact, especially carbon footprints, is crucial. Climate-smart mitigation options, with a prime emphasis on crop diversification, can help agriculture adapt to anomalous weather patterns and build resilience. Legumes offer a sustainable solution by reducing greenhouse gas emissions, as they produce 5-7 times less gases per unit area compared to other crops. They aid in carbon sequestration, with soil carbon estimates of 7.21 g kg-1 of dry matter, and save fossil energy by decreasing nitrogen fertilizer use, reducing CO2 emissions by 277 kg ha-1 per year. Legumes play a key role in low-emission farming systems due to their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, reducing dependence on energy-intensive synthetic fertilizers. They improve soil health, enhance soil structure, and support carbon sequestration. Integrating legumes into crop rotations reduces the need for chemical pesticides and fertilizers. Additionally, legumes can be used in food, feed, and biofuels, lowering reliance on more carbon-intensive resources. Embracing legumes in farming systems promotes sustainability improves soil health, and considerably reduces the overall environmentalimpact of agriculture.
Keywords: Carbon Footprint, Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Legumes Sustainability

Abstract

Refractance Window (RW) drying is a relatively new drying technology. This method is carried out by spreading a thin film of food slurry on a conveyor belt made up of a transparent polyester material. The slurry is thermally heated as it moves along the conveyor belt, resulting in rapid drying of the product. RW drying is similar to Drum Drying, but conducted at lower temperatures (95–97^ºC) and without direct contact with the heat source. RW drying offers low operating costs with excellent retention of color, flavor and nutrients.

It is well known that lowering the temperature of food stuffs reduces microbiological and biochemical spoilage and thus extending the shelf life of the product. In addition, it is generally agreed upon that the reaction rate is reduced by half by lowering the temperature by 10°C. Though low temperature preservation process has been recognized as a preservation technique for several hundred years, the major developments in its utilization have occurred only in the last century.

1. Introduction

Refrigeration may be defined as the process of achieving and maintaining a temperature below that of the surroundings. The aim being to cool some product or space to the required temperature. Refrigerated system or a room system is maintained at a temperature which is lower than the atmospheric temperature. Due to higher temperature of atmosphere, heat enters the system. To keep the temperature of the system constant, heat must be removed continuously from the system. Heat removed must be equal to the heat transferred to the system. One of the most important applications of refrigeration has been the preservation of perishable food products by storing them at low temperatures. Refrigeration systems are also used extensively for providing thermal comfort to human beings by means of air conditioning.

Introduction

Agricultural production system achieved a miracle by the way of green revolution which compactualized the potential of photoperiod and the thermo insensitive input responsive crop culture. The productive trends of food crops continued with increased fertilizer consumption, irrigation potential and improved agro-techniques. However science based intensive agriculture with intensive irrigation due to its inappropriate, inpropotional and ambitious approaches put the agriculture productivity on back foot. Because of these problems the arable land is facing the problem to sustain itself in terms of its capacity to produce desirable output. The scenario is further threatened with increase in climate change impact on various natural resources. The projected food crisis is on the card.

Global Packaging Regulations: FDA, EU, FSSAI, and Others FDA (U.S. Food and Drug Administration): The FDA ensures that food packaging materials are safe for contact with food in the United States. Under the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA), the FDA provides guidelines through the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Title 21. Key points include: • Food Contact Substances (FCS): Materials in contact with food must be either pre-approved or recognized as safe (GRAS). Packaging materials, including plastics, paper, and adhesives, must undergo tests to ensure they do not release harmful substances into food. • Migration Limits: The FDA sets allowable limits on the migration of substances from packaging into food, including chemicals from inks, coatings, and polymers. • Food Packaging Certification: Packaging manufacturers must confirm that their materials meet FDA standards for safety in food contact

Introduction

Nanotechnology is a rapidly expanding branch of science that has a critical role to play in raising the standard of living for people in the modern world. The global market for nanotechnology in food packaging is valued at 20 billion in 2023 and is expected to grow to 46.50 billion by 2031, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 11.32% from 2024 to 2031 (InsightAce Analytic, 2023). The rapid expansion of nanotechnology has paved the way for number of industrial areas, including food processing, food contact materials, and agricultural output (Mohammadi & Jafari, 2021). Nanotechnology is the fastest-growing field of science that significantly enhances the quality of life in today's world. This rapid advancement has opened up numerous industrial sectors, such as food processing, food contact materials, and agricultural production. A natural advancement is the integration of nanotechnology into food packaging. This includes enhanced packaging, active packaging, and a new category known as smart or intelligent packaging. Food contact materials, such as antimicrobial metals and oxides, biodegradable nanocomposites, and nanosensors, are utilized to create active and intelligent packaging. These materials enhance thermal and mechanical durability, increase safety and extend the shelf life of food, and facilitate the monitoring of packaged food (Kah et al., 2013). At the nanoscale, material properties change significantly, making it challenging to predict, identify, evaluate, and manage the health, safety, and environmental risks associated with nanomaterials. For example, nanoparticles (NPs) of 50 nm can enter cells, those of 70 nm can penetrate the lungs, and 30 nm NPs can cross blood-brain barriers.

Introduction

Food packaging is one of the most dynamic and fast-growing industries in the current scenario of increasing industrialization. With the constant upsurge in the food wastage at different stages of processing (suchas harvest, storage, processing, transportation, and distribution) leads to more than 15% of food produced ending up in the dumping grounds due to food spoilage caused by climatic conditions andmicroorganisms.Ever-increasing demands of consumers for convenient food makes packaging technology a need of the hour in order to keep the food safe, wholesome and of high quality at the same time.

So appropriate packaging has the potential of not only preventing spoilage but also taking care of healthand well-being of the individuals.Therefore, packaging plays the most important role in the overall safety of the food product.This makes packaging as the ever-evolving field since new requirements need new materials which demands new approaches and technology for better quality products.

By definition, Food packaging is a well-organized system of protecting the food product from any kind of physical, chemical, and biological damage in order to ensure that food reaches the consumer in its most safe condition at minimum applicable cost. It is bridge between production and consumption (Paine, 1992).

Previous Year Questions

1. What are the different ‘National Dietary Guidelines’ of India? What is your opinion on balanced diet of Indians? (20M, CSE 2021)

2. Classify foods on the basis of their function. Write down a balanced diet for a sedentary man & woman in India (10M, CS 2023)

National Dietary Guidelines

Recommended dietary allowance (RDA) is defined as “the nutrient present in the diet which satisfies the daily requirement of nearly all individuals in a population”.

Release agents are used to grease equipment used for manufacturing certain types of sugar confectionery for easy removal of the sweet.

High-viscosity, purified mineral oil is most commonly used material suitable for all sweet manufacturing purposes. Mineral oil is neutral in taste and has little odour. It should be used carefully: there is a legal limit of 0 2% in the United Kingdom.

Acetylated mono-glycerides have excellent release properties. A number of alternatives based on vegetable oil are available, but the development of rancidity on the film surface on the sweets during storage is the major difficulty in the use of vegetable oil

Introduction

Food safety and quality are the prime concerns in a global food supply chain. With the globalisation and advancement in the technologies, the global agricultural system transformed to a stage where food standards and international trade work hand-in-hand to promote food safety. The key drivers for this change in food regulations include digital technologies, novel food processing technologies, product labelling, marketing trends, e-commerce, etc. International trade in food sector is governed by the agreement on the application of Sanitary and PhytoSanitary Measures (SPS) and Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT). The agreements allow member nations to impose all measures or standards to protect human, animal, plant life and health, harmonize with the international standards, environmental protection, protection of consumers against deceptive practices and prevention of unjustifiable barriers to international trade.

In general, the developing countries have negligible contribution in the international trade. There are instances where the quality attributes of the commodities do not meet the required parameters as envisaged by the international market. Various issues associated with the product rejection on the basis of food safety and health standards are a matter of concern today rather than before. Hence, United Nations FAO and WTO urged the active involvement of the developing countries in the food standard setting processes in Codex Alimentarius as well as in SPS and TBT Committees. This will ensure harmonisation of food quality standards and traceability for rapid response to food borne disease outbreaks. Governments and local authorities shall intervene in the market place in setting technical regulations; and sanitary and phytosanitary measures which in turn will encourage the food processing companies around the world to implement food safety management systems to ensure the production and distribution of safe foods.

The financial and commercial book keeping that is generally practiced by dairies, the main purpose of which is to ascertain the total results of the business during a given period, does not answer the question whether the costs of processing of milk products and of the various operations involved in manufacturing, are reasonable. For this purpose, dairy plants have to keep detailed records of the expenditure incurred on different components and processes, for planning of production and controlling of costs. In large multi-product dairy plants, production is generally characterized by mixed and joint production and the different operating operations are interrelated. Thus, it becomes difficult to draw a distinction and allocate and apportion the consumption of various services and utilities to arrive at the cost of different operations of various products.
The Bureau of Indian Standards has developed three different sets of records on dairy accounts which may be used to record different information for cost and quality control. These records are:

Abstract

Three-point bend test (three point bend ring-HDP/3PB) for five types (Good day, Butter bite, Marie, Krack Jack and Salted) of commercial biscuit brands (Britannia, Supreme, Parle, Lancer, Priya Gold and Dalmia) was developed using TA-XT2, texture analyzer and probable factors affecting the results were assessed. Maximum force to break the biscuits, number of fracture before break, thickness of biscuits and percent break point penetration were found in the range of 1006.5 to 3456.5g, up to 3, 4.2 to 6.3mm and 5.54 to 22.62%. The rupture of biscuits were observed on the basis of probe penetration into the biscuits and found that maximum resistance for penetration offered by Marie whereas minimum by salted biscuits, which was respectively the hard dough and fermented dough biscuit varieties. The analysis of variance for the results revealed that there is significant difference (P£0.01) in the maximum force of break for the biscuit types and brands individually or in combination. Difference in the thickness of biscuits was also found significant among types and commercial brands. The number of fractures was not consistent among the types as well as biscuit brands before reaching the maximum force of breaking the biscuit.

Breeding of Heifers

    ·    Regardless of age, puberty is reached when a heifer weighs approximately 40% of her mature body weight.
 
    ·    Breeding however, is recommended when a heifer has reached 60% of her expected mature body weight. This is normally achieved when the heifer is 14 to 16 months old.
 
    ·    Smaller breeds may be bred one or two months earlier than large breeds because they mature faster.
 
    ·    Heifers in good condition and gaining weight at breeding time generally show more definite signs of estrus and have improved conception rates over heifers in poor condition and/or losing weight.
 
    ·    Over-conditioned or fat heifers have been reported to require more services per conception than heifers of normal size and weight.