eChapters

Family : Mimosaceae

Flowering: January-March

Fruiting: April-June

Botanical Description: The plant is a large, nearly evergreen perennial tree that grows up to 20 m or more in height. It has a broad crown, up to 30 m across, and a short trunk, up to 1 m thick. Leaves are deciduous but foliage is persistent, as the new leaves appear while the old ones are being shed, so that the tree looks like an evergreen. Flowers yellowish-white in colour and are borne in small spherical glomerules of about 1 cm in diameter, forming short axillary panicles of 5-30 cm in length. Pods are greenish-brown to red or pinkish, rather thin with 10-15 cm long with irregular shape and flattened. There are about 10 seeds per pod, shining black in a white pulpy aril.

Family : Myrtaceae

Flowering: April-May

Fruiting: July-August

Botanical description: The plant is an evergreen tropical tree, 50 to 100 ft. tall, with oblong opposite leaves that are smooth, glossy and having a terpentine smell. It has fragrant white flowers in branched clusters at stem tips and purplish-black oval edible berries. The leaves are antibacterial, and are used for strengthning the teeth and gums. The fruit is ellipsoid or oblong, variable in size and shape, usually up to 2.5 cm long, black, shining and juicy when fully ripe. Seeds always one, with thick rounded fleshy cotyledons, closely appressed on their inner faces.

Family : Lythraceae

Flowering: August-September

Fruiting: November-December

Botanical description: The water chestnut is an annual aquatic herb with a rosette of floating leaves and submerged, anchored into the mud by very fine roots. It has two types of leaves, finely divided, feather-like submerged leaves borne along the length of the stem, and undivided floating leaves borne in a rosette at the water’s surface. The floating leaves have saw-tooth edges and are ovoid or triangular in shape, 2-3 cm long, on inflated leaf-stalks 5-9 cm long, which provide added buoyancy for the leafy portion. Flowers are white in colour, with Four petals and are borne for a long period. The fruit is a nut with barbed spines. Seeds can remain viable up to 12 years, although most germinate within the first two years.

Family : Rhamnaceae

Flowering: July-September

Fruiting: October-January

Botanical Description: Jackal Jujube is a very thorny straggling shrub with rusty-velvety young branches with paired thorns. Thorns are, one straight and the other recurved. Alternately arranged simple leaves are ovate to ovatelancelike, often oblique, with three prominent nerves and numerous transverse nervules. Tiny green flowers are borne in nearly stalkless velvety cymes in leaf axils. Fruits are spherical or obovoid drupes, black, shining, seeds woody.

LAB constitutes a group of gram positive bacteria. They are nonsporulating, nonrespiring but aerotolerant cocci or rods, which produce lactic acid as one of the main fermentation products of carbohydrates, they do not have cytochromes. They belong to the phylum Firmicuttes, class Bacilli and order Lactobacillaceae. The group includes several genera such as Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Bifidobacterium, Pediococcus, Enterobacter, Corynebacterium, Streptococcus, Leuconostoc etc.

6.1 Introduction
The majority of milk demand is urban, while production is restricted to rural areas in nearly all developed dairying countries. Consequently, milk must be collected and transported from production sites in the milk-shed areas to processing and distribution points in cities.
The common systems for collection (assembling) of milk are as follows.
1. Through a cooperative organisation. Established by collective or individual dairy societies. Producers are most advantageous when there are no intermediaries involved in profit labelling.
2. by contractors. Producers receive a diminished return.
3. By independent producers. Convenient for individuals who reside in close proximity to dairy processing facilities.
Note: The milk shed is the geographic region from which a city dairy obtains its fluid milk supply. India is currently contemplating the allocation of specific milk silos to individual dairies in order to facilitate their development.

What new research is needed, what trials and how will the ultimate consumer and Industry benefit?
 
In Brazil, the sales of functional foods amounts to US $ 500 million per year representing about 1% of the total sale of the Brazilian food processing industry. According to a report the interests are mainly for dairy products, nutraceuticals and soy-based products. ABIA forecasts a substantial growth of 4.5-5% for this segment of the market (Stanton et al., 2001). In order to exert the health benefits beyond inherent basic nutrition, it is necessary that the activity of the probiotic culture should be maintained at very high levels during the shelf life of the product.

7.1 Introduction
Certain bacteria are present in milk that is extracted from the udder; they increase in quantity as it is processed further. The optimal temperature range for the proliferation of typical milk bacteria is 20 to 40 degrees Celsius. The formation of unpleasant flavours, increased acidity, and other factors always results in a decline in market quality following the proliferation of bacteria. Prompt chilling to a low temperature is one method of preserving milk. Milk jug Refrigerator: In order to preserve the purity of the milk received at the Dairy/Chilling Centre, it is chilled to 4°C using a milk chiller. Stainless-steel plates comprise the chiller. The process of chilling involves the circulation of chilled water from one side of the plates and milk from the other.
7.2 Methods
1. In can or can immersion method:
The milk is not only cooled, but it also remains cold, necessitating a significantly smaller mechanical refrigeration unit. This is achieved by transporting pails.
Benefits of a surface cooler
• Efficiently and swiftly transfer heat.
• Relatively affordable.
• Additionally, the milk is aerated, which enhances its flavour.

8.1 Introduction
The chemical composition of milk intended for market or milk product manufacturing must be standardised in numerous dairy processes. Standardising milk may necessitate the regulation of a single component (typically fat) while permitting the other components to shift or regulate two or more components concurrently. Definition: The term “standardisation” of milk denotes the process of adjusting the fat and solids-not-fat percentages of milk to the desired value in order to comply with the legal or other requirements.
Objectives of standardization are
1. To ensure that specific milk and dairy products meet legal requirements.
2. To offer a consistent product to the consumer.
3. To guarantee economic efficiency in production.
The volume of milk available for sale is increased by the addition of skim milk, and the separation of cream enables the production of other value-added dairy products, such as butter, table cream, or other high-fat products.

10.1 Introduction
Developed in the 1950s, ultra-high temperature pasteurization typically involves no hold using a temperature range of 135°C to 150°C. Immediate aseptic packaging determines how well UHT heat treatment of milk works.
10.2 Uperization Developed in Switzerland, this is generally known as “ultra – pasteurization”. Milk is heated in this method under direct steam up to 150 °c for a fraction of a second. One is always learning from this. Fore warming milk to 50 °C is the first stage in the uperization process, meant to eliminate most of the dissolved oxygen and volatile off-flavours by vacuum treatment. In the second step, the milk is first preheated to roughly 80–90 °C and then heated on the uperization chamber under high-pressure steam to roughly 150 °C for ½ to ¾ a second. The product moves into an expansion chamber at almost atmospheric pressure after this heating, therefore inducing some evaporation of moisture. The good is then transferred to a chiller and subsequently into a storage chamber.
The advantages of uperization are
• Long keeping quality.
• Removal of feed and other volatile off-flavours:
• Appreciable homogenization effect.
• Reduction in acidity.
• Efficient destruction of microorganisms.
• Effect of uperization on nutritive value and flavour are not greater than that of pasteurization.

Starters are selected strains of micro-organisms deliberately added to milk during conversion into cheese, dahi, yoghurt and other fermented dairy products to bring about specific changes in the appearance, body, texture and flavour characteristics of the desired final products.

Functions of Starters

The primary function of almost all starter culture is to develop acid in the product. The secondary effects of acid production include coagulation, expulsion of moisture, texture formation and initiation of flavour production. In addition to these, the starters also help in imparting pleasant acid taste, conferring protection against potential pathogens and providing a longer shelf life to the product. These bacteria convert 1% of lactose in milk approximately to lactic acid with very little by-products such as acetic acid, ethanol, CO2 and normally with no substances causing taints and hence leading to a clean and wholesome milk souring.

11.1 Introduction
“Homogenization” is the method of mechanical treatment producing a stable emulsion of milk fat and milk serum. Homogenizer is the name given to the equipment employed for this aim. The fat globules in milk range in size from 1 to 20 microns; the average is 4 to 6 microns. The homogenizer reduces the size of the fat globules in milk or cream passing through it. The most of them are less than two microns. After homogenization, no cream line develops on milk; churning homogenized cream cannot generate butter grains. Moreover, milk like cream’s viscosity is changing, which increases the resistance the smaller fat globules face. The increase in viscosity is ascribed to the fact that more milk protein will be deposited on the surfaces of more fat lobules. Homogenizing milk changes its clotting characteristics, so the curd made with rennet or pepsin is supposed to be softer. Because lipolytic enzymes adsorbed on the extra surfaces provided by the more numerous tiny fat globules hydroly fat, homogenized milk or cream may become rancid more quickly than untreated goods. The milk or cream must be pasteurized either right before or right after homogenization to prevent these changes. Usually, the milk is homogenized after main heating and then pasteurized. Driven via a small valve against hard surfaces, heated milk is under pressure of 2500 psi and in a second stage under 500 psi. With a 1/10000 inch diameter, the aperture the liquid is driven through is quite small. Mechanical force milk through a narrow passage at high speed produces homogenized milk. This produces a stabile fat emulsion and breaks down the fat globules in milk into considerably smaller ones. Homogenization reduces the inclination of the fat globules to cluster and merge into cream. Milk is an emulsion whereby fat globules are distributed across a constant skim milk phase. Raw milk left to sit will finally cause the fat to climb to the top and form a cream layer. By means of a small opening under high pressure, homogenization mechanically breaks down the fat globules. While increasing their number and surface area, this lowers the average size of the fat globules. Practically speaking, the net effect is a substantially decreased inclination for creaming of fat globules. Three elements contribute to this increased stability of homogenized milk: a decrease in the mean diameter of the fat globules (a factor in Stokes Law), a decrease in the size distribution of the fat globules (causing the speed of rise to be similar for most globules such that they do not tend to cluster during creaming), and an increase in density of the globules (bring them closer to the continuous phase) owing to the adsorption of a protein membrane. < Heat pasteurization also breaks down the cryo-globulin complex, which often clusters fat globules causing them to increase. The homogenizer consists of a high-pressure pump with an adjustable opening based on a minute orifice. High pressure force of fluids through the orifice causes a notable change in the physical characteristics of the treated product and generates a very intimate combination of the fluid components. Annexure- II has a Homogenizer schematic.

Jaboticaba: It is a Brazilian tree (Myrciaria cauliflora) of the myrtle family cultivated in warm regions for its edible purplish fruit.

Jack salmon /walleye: A large vigorous American freshwater food and sport fish (Stizostedion vitreum) that has large opaque eyes and is related to the perches but resembles the true pike called also walleyed pike

Jaggery: Raw brown / unrefined brown sugar in lumpmade from palm sap (Plate 209).

Jam: A preserved product prepared on boiling pectin contained fruit pulp having edible seed and skin with required amount of sugar, water and acid to a reasonably thick consistency, firm enough to hold the fruit tissues in position (Plate 210).

Jam pack: The packing of the commodity tightly or in excess is called Jam pack.

Jamaica rum: Heavy bodied rum made by slow fermentation and marked by a pungent bouquet.

Jamboline: A type of glucose found in the jamun fruit help in cure of the diabetes in the patients.

15.1 Introduction
Milk is a multifaceted physiological fluid that aids infants in their transition to life outside the womb by supporting digestion and development, as well as providing essential nutrients and bioactive components. It promotes the development of beneficial microflora and enhances the growth of lymphoid tissue. Recent research indicates that the quantity and importance of bioactive compounds in milk may be greater than previously believed. Through research, the distribution and presence of essential components in various animal milks have been analyzed. The consumption of dairy products has been linked to health benefits that mitigate the adverse effects of obesity and overweight. These benefits include a decreased likelihood of being underweight, reduced blood pressure, and a reduced risk of stroke, colon cancer, and osteoporosis. Dairy products provide a valuable combination of nutrients, such as proteins, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals, that are essential for the maintenance of blood health, the support of the nervous and immune systems, the improvement of vision, the support of muscle and nerve function, the maintenance of skin health, the maintenance of energy levels, and the overall growth and repair of the body. Furthermore, dairy products can function as carriers for bioactive compounds and may provide a variety of health benefits, such as improved immune function, reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, reduced bone mass loss, and protection against free radical damage, when consumed in an appropriate quantity. Incorporating fruits and vegetables in a variety of forms—including fresh, desiccated, powdered, juiced, pureed, pulped, or extracted—into dairy products such as yogurt, ice cream, and cheese also presents an opportunity to improve their health benefits.

Bacteria are morphologically different. This characteristic is helpful in the identification of bacteria. Routine study of bacterial morphology should include examination of stained preparations. Motility should be examined by hanging drop preparation. According to the requirement, certain cell structures may be stained. Stained preparations should be made preferably from fresh agar slant cultures. Smears of Streptococcus should be made from a liquid culture. Morphology of bacteria may be described under the following terms:

1.Shape: Spherical, coccobacillary, short or long rods, filamentous, comma- shaped, curved or spiral forms.

2.Size: Spherical are measured in diameter and rod-shaped in length and breadth. Measurement is expressed in microns (µ).

3.Sides: Straight, concave, bulging, parallel or irregular.

4.Ends: Round, pointed, truncate or concave.

5.Axis: Straight or curved.

6.Arrangement: Singly, in twos, in groups of four or eight, in grape-like bunches, in long chains, or scattered irregularly, may be in bundles, angular arrangements or in Chinese letters.

7.Pleomorphism: Bacteria may differ from their typical shape. Some of the older cultures may depart greatly from their typical forms, and may show spindles, clubs, and filaments, swollen and branching forms. Variation may be both in shape and size.

8.Capsule: May or may not be present. When present, size should be noted. This requires special staining.

23.1 Introduction
Various products can also be produced by emulsions that contain fat globules. For instance, cream is produced when milk contains concentrated fat. This cream can be further processed to produce butter, ghee, and butteroil. “Milk fat, ghee, butter oil, anhydrous milk fat, and anhydrous butter oil are fatty products that are exclusively derived from milk or products obtained from milk, or both, through processes that result in the almost complete removal of water and milk solids, not fat.” The method of manufacturing (FSSAI standards) has notably influenced the flavour and physical structure of ghee.

23.2 Types of Fat Rich Dairy Products
23.2.1 Cream or Malayi
“Cream is a yellowish component of milk that naturally rises to the surface when milk is allowed to stand. It is rich in fat globules.” Cream is mechanically separated in the dairy industry. The size of the fat globules is diminished as a result of homogenisation of cream, which renders the product less suitable for whipping.
Cream can be defined as
1. That portion of milk, which is rich in milk fat
2. That portion of milk into which has been gathered and which contains large portion of milk fat
3. When milk fat is concentrated into a fraction of the original milk that portion is called cream.

PRACTICAL 1: PREPARATION OF READY-TO-COOK MUSHROOM PASTA

Pasta is a product originally made from wheat and is of different shapes and sizes. It is generally rich in carbohydrate but is deficient in protein especially amino acid balance. Therefore, addition of spices and dried vegetables may solve this problem. Moreover, fortification of pasta with tomato, garlic, mushroom or spinach makes it nutritious for consumption. Since instant foods are widely becoming popular and consumed throughout the world and is also a fast growing sector of the noodle industry because of busy life schedule of people.

27.1 Introduction
Processed organic food typically consists of solely organic ingredients. If there are any non-organic components, a specified proportion of the food’s plant and animal ingredients must be organic, and any non-organic ingredients must meet specific agricultural standards. Organic foods should not contain artificial additives and are usually processed using fewer synthetic methods and materials, avoiding practices like chemical ripening, food irradiation, and genetic modification. While synthetic pesticides are prohibited, non-synthetic pesticides are permitted. Milk from cows—or any other animal—serves as a useful environmental indicator for measuring pollutants and pesticides because substances consumed by the animal end up in the milk it produces. If contaminants are present in the grass, they will ultimately be found in the milk.

27.2 Beyond these four main factors have led to the increasing interest by farmers and consumers in organic dairy farming
1. Consumer concerns about food safety and animal welfare
2. Overproduction of food (perceived as low in quality)
3. The environmental effects of intensive farming

EXPERIMENT: MINIMAL PROCESSING OF CAULIFLOWER (FREEZING PRESERVATION AND STEEPING PRESERVATION)

Materials and reagents

Material : Fresh cauliflower, glass jars, polythene pouches

Reagents: 15% sodium chloride

Xanthan gum: It is a polysaccharide that is produced by fermentation of carbohydrates by a gram-negative bacterium (Xanthomonas campestris) and is a thickening and suspending agent used in pharmaceuticals and prepared foods. It is also called xanthan. Xanthan is a stabilizer produced by Xanthomonas compestris (Plate 340). Xanthan is not hydrolysed or degraded by humans.

Xanthine: A basic compound C5 H4 N4 O2 that occurs in animal or plant tissue, is derived from guanine and hypoxanthine, and yields uric acid on oxidation.

Xanthones: It is a group of yellow pigments e.g. mangiferin in mango,

Xanthophyll: Yellow hydroxyl carotene derivative (C40H550C) which is present in all green leaves together with chlorophyll and carotene. Xanthophyll is a pigment containing O2 derived from carotene.

Xeroderma pigmentosum: It is a genetic disorder inherited as a recessive autosomal trait that is caused by a defect in mechanisms that repair DNA mutations (as those caused by ultraviolet light) and is characterized by the development of pigment abnormalities and multiple skin cancers in areas exposed to the sun.