eChapters

Cell walls mainly consist of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin in a 4:3:3 ratio. This ratio differs from sources such as hardwood, softwood, and herbs. Besides these three components, natural lignocellulosic materials contain a small amount of pectin, nitrogenous compounds, and the secret ash.

1. Cellulose

2. Hemicellulose

3. Lignin

Cellulose

Cellulose is a glucan polymer consisting of linear chains of 1,4-ß -bonded anhydroglucose units. Cellulose is the structural component of the primary cell wall of the green plants.About 33% of all plant matter is cellulose (the cellulose content of cotton fiber is 90%, that of wood is 40-50% and that of dried hemp is approximately 45%. Cellulose is a straight chain polymer.The number of sugar units in one molecular chain is referred to as the degree of polymerization (DP).Cellulose is insoluble in most solvents including strong alkali. It is difficult to isolate from wood in pure form because it is intimately associated with the lignin and hemicelluloses.

The volatile oil in the flower determines the odour and flavour of kewda and it has been of particular fascination to the chemists. There are only a few reports on the chemical composition of kewda essential oil (rooh or otto) Dhingra et al. (1954) distilled the kewda flowers collected from five places of Ganjam (Odisha) and Ghazipur (Uttar Pradesh) districts. He found the oil yield to vary from 0.015 to 0.031% and the compounds identified were methyl ether of β- phenyl ethyl alcohol (65.97%), d-linalool (18.70%), dipentene (8.31%), phenyl ethyl acetate (3.48%) and citral (1.82%). The oil was of light to golden yellow in colour having the following physico-chemical properties viz., specific gravity (d20o) 0.932-0.958; refractive index (n20o) 1.485-1.491; optical rotation ([α]D) + 1.350 to + 2.080; acid value 1.4 – 6.7; ester value 15.9 – 40.9 and soluble in equal volume of 80 % alcohol (Deshaprabhu, 1966). Sadgopal (1959) also reported the major constituent of oil as methyl ether of β-phenyl ethyl alcohol (65 – 80%) and minor constituents as dipentene, α-linalool, phenyl ethyl alcohol, citral and some terpene esters.

According to Chandra (1985), the oil contained dipentene (6.0%), d -linalool (19.0%), phenyl ethyl acetate (4.6%), citral (1.8%), caproic acid (0.5%) and stearoptene (0.2%) besides the major constituent methyl ether of β-phenyl ethyl alcohol (67.0%).

4.1 Introduction

Insecticides, biocontrol agents and resistant varieties are the three important pest management tactics in vogue across the globe. Though several biocontrol agents have been recorded on major pests of economically important crops, mass multiplication techniques for most of them are yet to be perfected, and in several instances, the inundative releases of natural enemies are costlier than chemical insecticides. Moreover, unlike perennial crop ecosystems, the annual crop ecosystems like rice, cotton, sugarcane, pulses, etc. are frequently disturbed and hence, inoculative releases of biocontrol agents are often impractical. Above all, in spite of sustained effort from dedicated plant breeders across the globe, the resistant varieties with outstanding yield potential are very limited in numbers. Genetic engineering of crop plants though paved the way for introducing insecticidal genes more precisely and efficiently, the poorly understood ecological and sociological implications of genetically engineered crops in their target environment resist their strong footing in the pest management programmes in most of the crops especially of food crops. In this backdrop, insecticidal interference is inevitable to manage the insect pests, and they are the only weapon whenever the pest population crosses the economic threshold level.

Acid soils occupy about 30 percent of the land area of the world out of which 67% acid soils support forests and wood lands and 18 percent are covered by grassland vegetation. Only 4.2 per cent (179 million hectare) of the acid soils across the globe is used for arable crops.

Soil acidity is a major constraint in crop production. The removal of basic cations especially Ca and Mg by leaching and their replacement by acidic cations, H, Al and Fe on exchange complex leads to soil acidity. Soil developed from granite parent material are more acidic than those developed from basalt, shale or lime stone. In acid soils, low pH leading to toxic concentration of H⁺, Al³⁺, Mn²⁺ influences nutrient availability, organic matter decomposition and microbial activity.

Efficient soil amelioration and nutrient management practices are necessary for crops susceptible to soil acidity.

Chemical ecology is the study of ecological interactions between organisms mediated by chemical produced by those organisms. In short it is considered as the ecological functions of the chemicals. An insect, in various stages of its life history, performs various activities like host plant location, host plant selection,  feeding and oviposition, mating, escape from its natural enemies etc. and the chemicals play a crucial role than visual and audio signals. Chemical ecology encompasses the studies of these chemicals based interactions.

Abstract

Organic farming, the state - of - art technology of the present era in agricultural cultivation, is not new to India. Green revolution in last four decades of Twentieth Century made farmers more dependants on chemical fertilizers and chemical pesticides for harvesting highest crop yield but side by side increased environmental pollution as well as health hazards and reduced soil productivity by increasing nutrient imbalance in soil. Indian farmers have almost forgotten their century old practice of preparation of compost from farm wastes and its use in next cultivation for getting pollution free healthy food materials. This articles deals with the problems of chemical farming in Indian context and their solution through organic farming.

Chemical immobilization of elephants needs an understanding of itís special features as a priority. Lungs are adhered to the chest wall by fibrous tissue and there is no pleural space. This fact must be taken into consideration when the elephant is cast or put into positions that may inhibit respiration.The trunk of the elephant is a vital organ. An injured or paralyzed trunk is a serious problem; if it cannot be corrected, the elephant will starve.

Chemical restraint is a form of animal restraint technique in which a drug or a chemical is used to restrict the movement (walking, running, aggression) of an animal or sometimes just to sedate or to calm down the animal. Chemical restraint is a safe and effective capture method when applied correctly and with due precaution.

Key facts

    
•    Arsenic (As) is a metalloid, with properties intermediate between those of a metal and a non-metal. Arsenic can exit in the environment and biological systems in various inorganic and organic forms (species). These are arsenite - AsIII, arsenate - AsV, monomethyl arsonic acid (MMAA), dimethyl arsinic acid (DMAA), arsenocholine, arsenobetaine and arsenosugars. 
    
•    Arsenicals have a wide range of toxicity. In general, inorganic arsenicals are more toxic than oragnoarsenicals to biota and trivalent arsenic (arsenite) is more acutely toxic than pentavalent (arsenate) form in the following orders:
    
    Arsenous acid (AsIII) ®  arsenic acid (AsV) ® MMAA ®DMAA ® arsenocholine ® arsenobetaine.
    
•    Under oxidizing and aerobic conditions, the predominant form of arsenic (As) in soil and water is arsenate (AsV), whereas under anaerobic and reducing/or waterlogged conditions, arsenite (AsIII) predominates.
    
•    Inorganic AsIII and AsV are the major As species in groundwater, soils, terrestrial plants, whereas the main species found in marine animals is Arsenobetaine (AsB), which is considered to be non-toxic.
    
•    The LD50 values of different arsenicals show that arsenite (AsIII) is most toxic (LD50 range 15-42 mg/kg) and arsenobetaine is least toxic (LD50 > 10,000 mg/kg).

Key facts

Freshwater biotoxins

    
•    Biotoxins are naturally occurring toxic compounds produced by some freshwater cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and marine algal species (dinoflagellates, diatoms).
    
•    Cyanobacteria are now recognised as a serious water quality problem with regard to drinking water supply and recreational use.
    
•    Environmental conditions that can promote cyanobacterial/blue-green algal blooms are: excessive nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen); warm water temperatures (15-30OC); sunlight for photosynthesis; and quiescent or stagnant water.
    
•    Outbreak of human poisoning attributed to cyanobacteria are neurotoxins (e.g. anatoxin-a, anatoxin-a(s), saxitoxins) and hepatotoxins (e.g. microcystins, nodularin) produced by some strains of the cyanobacteria including Microcystis, Anabaena, Aphanizomenon spp.

Key facts
    
•    Dioxins are the most dangerous and ‘super toxic’ chemicals so far known on the earth and three closely related families are collectively known as dioxins. These are Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin or dioxins (PCDDs), Polychlorinated dibenzofurans or furans (PCDFs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).
    
•    2, 3, 7, 8-TCDD (or called TCDD) is the most potent of all the congeners. The toxicity equivalency factor or TEF of TCDD has been assigned as 1, while all other congeners assigned in order of toxicity ranking magnitude relative to TCDD.
    
•    There are 75 compounds/congeners in the dioxin family (PCDD), 135 compounds in the furan family (PCDF) and 209 possible compounds in the PCBs based on the possible number of chlorine atoms.
    
•    The toxicity of dioxins and dioxin-like compounds vary substantially among the different PCDDs, PCDFs and PCBs. It is generally accepted that only 29 out of the 419 congeners of dibenzo-p-dioxins, dibenzofurans and polychlorinated biphenyls are toxic to humans and other organisms. The TCDD is most toxic and registered by the WHO as carcinogenic for humans.

Key facts

    
•    Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are micropollutants with estrogenic or androgenic activities at very low concentrations and are emerging as a major concern for water quality.
    
•    EDCs include natural and synthetic hormones (Estrone or E1, 17b-estradiol or E2, Estriol or E3, 17a-ethynylestradiol or EE2); alkylphenols (nonylphenol or NP; octyphenol or OP), phenols (bisphenol-A or BPA), phthalates (Di-n-butyl phthalate or DBP, Di-2-(ethylhexyl)-phthalate or DEHP); organotins (tributyltin or TBT); and phytoestrogens (b-sitosterol, coumestrols, genistein). 
    
•    Wastewater treatment plants, intensive livestock effluents, industrial wastewaters, landfill, paper and pulp mill effluents and antifouling paints are important sources of EDCs in the environment.

Key facts
    
•    Pesticides are chemicals that are broadly used to protect crops, livestock and other animals and plants from pests and diseases. They are classified according to the type of pest to be controlled (algicides, herbicides, fungicides and insecticides).
    
•    Commercial production of DDT began in 1943. At that time, DDT was considered to be a wonderful invention. It was cheap to produce, very toxic to insects and much less toxic to mammals and its usage resulted in a sharp decline of mosquito borne diseases. In 1962, it was discovered that DDT was causing egg-shell thinning in bird eggs and thus was leading to the near extinction of bird species such as peregrine falcons and bald eagles.
    
•    Pesticides use has greatly helped to increase and improve the world food production. Use of pesticides also increases farmer’s profits by preventing crop losses due to pest attacks and weed infestation.

Key facts
    
•    Biotoxins are naturally occurring toxic compounds produced by some freshwater cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and marine algal species (dinoflagellates, diatoms).
    
•    Tonnes of pharmacologically active substances are used annually in human and veterinary medicines, some of these substances are excreted (human and animal) non-metabolised or an active metabolites and enter into the environment since waste water treatment plant (WWTP) cannot degrade them.
    
•    In Europe, around 4,000 different pharmaceutically active compounds are used as human and veterinary drugs and the annual consumption is about several hundred tonnes.
    
•    European Union and the United States laws require an assessment of potential risks to the environment as part of license application processes for new medicinal products.

•    Pharmaceutical products are generally polar, water soluble and low volatile molecules, it means that they have high mobility in the environment.

Key Facts

    •    The heavy metals (HM) or trace metals in an aquatic environment can come from natural (e.g. geological minerals, wind blown silicate dust, volcanic emissions, sea spray and combustion) and anthropogenic sources (e.g. mining, industry and sewage treatment discharges as well as electronic waste and agriculture fertilisers). In aquatic systems, the heavy metals of greatest concerns are cadmium, copper, lead, mercury and zinc.
    •    Metals may exist in a number of physico-chemical states in aqueous systems such as particulate matter and dissolved forms. Metal speciation in freshwater is strongly influenced by hardness, alkalinity, pH, natural dissolved organic matter (DOM) and redox potential. 
    •    Water hardness is quantitatively related to metal toxicity in freshwater (i.e. toxicity of heavy metals decrease with increasing hardness and alkalinity; on the other hand, toxicity increases with decreasing salinity, dissolved organic matter and chelators). The uptake and toxicity of heavy metals of most metals in marine waters is low as compared to freshwater because metals are easily complexed with chloride ions.
    •    The toxicity of HMs is related to the dissolved ionic form of the metal rather than total concentration of the metal. Each different physico-chemical forms of an element has a different toxicity, for example, if the element (e.g. Cu) is absorbed on a colloidal particles it is expected to be of little or no effect on aquatic organisms, however,  if the copper is available as free Cu (II) ion, few aquatic organisms may survive.

INTRODUCTION

The use of chemical for protecting plants from the ravages of the pathogens is not an innovation of the 20th century. Chemicals have been used for over 200 years to protect plants against fungal diseases. At present about 150 chemicals belonging to different classes are used as fungicides in world agriculture. Most of the recommended treatments generally provide 90% or greater control of target diseses. Even when a crop has been grown from pathogen free soil and the crop seems superficially healthy, the use of fungicides in some circumstances become unavoidable. Resistant varieties of potato are attacked by late blight if rain occurs during tuber formation. To control this disease use of fungicides become vital to avoid any loss of the crop. Thus, even in the case of resistant varieties, judicious use of chemical protection will extend the life of resistance in the variety. For killing different groups of pathogens, different types of chemicals are required. The chemicals mainly used for controlling diseases are: fungicides for killing fungus, bactericide for killing barteria, nematicides for killing nematodes, and viricides for killing viruses.

Introduction and Concept

The word fungicide has originated from two Latin words: viz. fungus and caedo (to kill). So literally, a fungicide would be any physical or chemical agency which kills a fungus. However, the word is restricted to chemicals. Hence, the word fungicide should mean a chemical capable of killing fungi. However, there are a number of compounds which do not kill the fungus. They simply inhibit growth or spore germination temporarily. If the fungus is freed from such substances, it would revive. Such a chemical is called a fungistat. and the phenomenon as fungistasis. Some other chemicals, like certain phenantherene derivatives and bordeaux mixture may inhibit spore production without affecting vegetative growth. These are called antisporulants. There are other groups of chemicals which exhibit very poor or no antifungal activity in vitro condition but provide protection to the plants either by inhibiting the penetration of host surface by the fungi or by inducing the host defense system. The former type of chemicals are termed as antipenetrants and later as antipathic agents. Even though fungistats, antisporulants, antipenentrants, and antipathic agents do not kill fungi, they are included under the broad term fungicide because by common usage, the word fungicide has been defined as chemical substance which has ability to prevent damage caused by fungi to plants and their products. Fungicide which is effective only if applied prior to fungal infection is called protectants. On the other hand, fungicide which is capable of eradicating a fungus after it has caused infection, and thereby curing the plant, is called therapeutant.

Anti-pathogen Chemicals
The chemical substances that help to retard the activity of pathogens like fungus, bacteria and nematodes are said to be anti-pathogen chemicals.
Aim of use of chemicals in plant disease control
The aim and of use of chemicals in plant disease control are
• To create a toxic barrier between the host surface or tissue and the pathogen .
• To eradicate the pathogen present at a particular site on the host, such as seed, foliage, roots etc.
Functions of chemicals in plant disease control
• Reduction in inoculum density or eradication of inoculum from source of growth, multiplication and survival.
• Inactivaion or destruction of the pathogen when it lands on the treated surface, and
• Cure of the diseased plant.

Introduction

The metal particles in nanometer scale shows exciting optical and electronic characteristics when compared with respective bulk metals. Because of the inherent electronic properties of the metal and metal oxide nanoparticles these nanostructure materials are applied in various disciplines in recent days. Mostly these nanoparticles can be synthesized either top down or bottom up approaches. The conversion of bigger size particle or matter into tiny particles is called top down approach where as smaller particles or atoms joined together forming particles in regular shape within nanometer scale dimension is called bottom up approach. The formation of nanoparticles by chemical reduction is an example for the later one and the reduction size with the help of mechanical crusing leads to the formation of fine nanoparticles is named as top down approach. Mostly nanoparticles can be synthesized by chemical method because of its easiness to synthesis particles with uniform size and high purity.

In the previous chapter the physical methods of fruit and vegetables processing and preservation have been discussed. The present chapter deals with chemical method of fruit and vegetable preservation. In this method of preservation of fruits and vegetables, chemicals as preservatives are used to prevent the spoilage of fruit and vegetable products. These preservatives react with food (produce) constituents or microorganisms and create unfavourable conditions which hinder growth, activities and multiplication of microbes responsible for spoilage of food products. These chemical agents have maximum permissible limit of their use as law. They can be classified into two classes class I and class II.

Class I: Sugar, Salt and Oils

Class II: Sodium benzoate, Potassium metabisulphite (K M S) and Sorbic acid

Chemical synthesis is spontaneous organization of molecules into stable, structurally well-defined aggregates at the nanometer length scale. Chemical synthesis is largely an art form (i.e., theory often does not quantitatively predict how to make new materials from molecules).Yet, chemical synthesis can be quite powerful (e.g., proteins and complex organic molecules can be made from simple reagents) Semiconductor nanocrystals have been synthesized via “natural self-assembly” in two steps:

1.Capped cluster molecule forms spontaneously from molecular reagents in solution

2.Cluster molecules crystallize out of solution

18.1 Introduction

Recycling of industrial wastewater is not only environmentally beneficial, but it is typically more cost effective than conventional treatment and discharge. Through application of stream segregation and appropriate treatment technologies, high purity water is produced for continuous reuse where by metals are recovered and solid wastes reduced. Recycling of industrial effluent by chemical treatment includes many separation methods for getting pure waters. It is very essential to discuss about reverse osmosis, filtration, adsorption evaporation etc. This chapter includes the discussion about the methodology of chemical treatments.

18.2 Conventional Treatments

The oldest and most widely applied method of wastewater treatment involves the addition of chemicals and applications of aerators etc. to alter the make-up constituents of a waste. Although generally downsized, the process continues to play an important role in newer systems used today. Automated controls and advanced instrumentation have improved this technology in recent years. (Tomer et.al., 1997)

Introduction

Packaging of food material is an essential component of food industry since packaging provides protection, physical tampering resistance and unique appearance to the food products which attracts the customers (Robertson, 2006). The handling of food products would be inefficient and costly if they are not packed properly (Robertson, 2006). The style and design of packaging influence their sale as well as demand. The main aim of packaging is to corroborate the safety and quality of food by preventing microbial contamination (Lee K.M, 2010). Plastics, papers, glass and metals are the common materials used for packaging of food products (Arvanitoyannis and Bosnea, 2004). Among these plastics are most commonly used packaging material because of their low cost, light weight, design freedom and high durability (British Plastic Federation). Various additives are added to the plastics to achieve desired physical and chemical properties. These additives are stabilizers, plasticisers, lubricants and f lame retardants. These additives have potential to transfer from the packaging materials to the food stuffs(K Bunia et al., 2013).

The efficient food packaging solutions are the need of the hour for the Earth. The food losses including the production, post harvest, processing stages of the supply chain and food wastage includes loss of edible food occurring at the f inal stages of food chain that is during retail supply or ultimate consumption. The food born illnesses cannot be ignored which are a consequence of the contamination of food by bacteria, viruses, parasites, new chemical entities or toxicants. We need to optimise the food supply chain, increase food shelf life and consciousness amidst food producers to food consumers. The active and intelligent packaging may help the globe through sufficient food for the increasing population. Scavengers/ absorbers are important solutions which may absorb substances from the packaging inner atmosphere (ethylene absorbers, oxygen scavengers; emitters and antioxidants).

Nematodes are multicellular, unsegmented, bilaterally symmetrical roundworms belonging to pseudocoelomates class of creatures. Many of them are parasites of plants. Different crops species are susceptible to several species of plant parasitic nematodes which limits the yield and quality of the food harvest. Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), foliar nematodes (Aphelenchoides spp.), root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) reniform nematodes (Rotylenchulus spp.) and other ectoparasitic nematodes are the important nematodes species to infect the crop plants.

Weeds can be defined as plants which are undesirable, persistent, damaging and interfere with growth of other crop plants thus affecting agriculture, natural resources and economy of the country. These plants influence the produce of farmers in several ways.

It is used in the control of bacterial leaf spots, blights, and cankers mostly on fruits crops and ornamentals. The Bordeaux mixture, however, can cause burning of leaves or russeting of fruit such as apples when applied in cool, wet weather. The phytotoxicity of Bordeaux is reduced by increasing the ratio of hydrated lime to copper sulfate. Copper is the only ingredient in the Bordeaux mixture that is toxic to pathogens and, sometimes, to plants, whereas the role of lime is primarily that of a “safener.”

The algae associated with the plants belongs to the Order Trentepohliales (Ulvophyceae, Chlorophyta). These are filamentous green algae parasitic to higher plants, generally causing minor diseases characterized by negligible leaf spots, but on certain crops, in moist environments, these algal diseases can cause economic injury to plant leaves, fruits, and stems (Nelson, 2008).

Plant viruses cause severe crop losses worldwide. Conventional control strategies, such as cultural methods and biocide applications have limited success at mitigating the impact of plant viruses.

Introduction

The mammary glands of female mammals secrete milk, a necessary food that is liquid and meets the newborn’s nutritional needs. All mammals consider milk to be a complete food for their newborns. It is considered a necessary food for humans and can be consumed as a product or as liquid milk. It contains almost all essential nutrients except iron, which is very low in milk. In essence, milk is an emulsion of protein and fat in water, supplemented with carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals.

Definition of Milk

• Milk is a complex biological fluid that differs from species to species in both composition and physical properties. It is the full lacteal secretion of a mammary gland that is obtained by milking mammals for a minimum of 72 h after calving or until the milk is free from colostrum.

• FSSAI defines milk as the normal mammary secretion derived from the complete milking of healthy milch animals. It should be free from colostrum.

From a chemical perspective, milk is a dynamically balanced mixture that comes in different forms such as emulsion, colloidal suspension, and true solution. It also contains varying amounts of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, salts, and water.

Gross Composition of Milk

Milk composition varies among different mammals. The average chemical composition of milk in various species is given in Table 1. Buffalo milk and sheep milk contain higher amounts of fat, while human milk comparatively has the highest lactose content. Human milk has lower protein content as compared to milk of other species.

Sixteen chemical elements are known to be important for a plant growth, their metabolic activities and survival. These can be divided in to two main groups

Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is measurement of oxygen demand of waste in terms of the total quantity of oxygen required for oxidation of the waste to carbon dioxide and water. This test is based on the fact that all the organic compounds, with few exceptions, can be oxidized The test is based on the fact that all organic compounds, with a few exceptions, can be oxidized by the action of strong oxidizing agents under acid conditions. Organic matter + Oxidizing agent = CO2 + H2O. The major advantage of COD test is the short time required for evaluation. The determination can be made in about 3 hours rather than the 5-days required for the measurement of BOD
Principle
The oxidizing agents like potassium permanganate and potassium dichromate is usually used to determine COD. Potassium permanganate is selective in the reaction like it reacts with carbonaceous on the other hand it shows nonreactive with nitrogenous matter. Estimating of COD with any method, oxidizing agent must be present to ensure that organic matter is oxidized completely. The organic matter and oxidisable inorganic substances present in water or wastewater get oxidised completely by standard potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) in the presence of H2SO4 to produce CO2 + H2O.The excess K2Cr2O7 remaining after the reaction is titrated with ferrous ammonium sulphate [Fe(NH4)2 (SO4)2]. The dichromate consumed gives the 02 required for oxidation of the organic matter.

Salinity is a measure of the total concentration of dissolved solids, which is usually expressed in parts per thousand (ppt). Chloride, sulphate, bicarbonate, and bromide are anions (- charged). Cations that are positively charged are sodium, magnesium, calcium, potassium, and strontium. The main solids are sodium and chloride.

This chapter describes methods for evaluating soil reaction, salinity, organic matter and plant-available nutrients. It begins with soil pH and electrical conductivity, explaining their importance in nutrient availability and the identification of acidic, saline or alkaline conditions. Procedures are then provided for estimating organic carbon, available nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulphur. The chapter also covers calcium, magnesium and micronutrients, including zinc, iron, copper, manganese, boron and molybdenum. Every method identifies the necessary apparatus and reagents and explains extraction, colour development, instrumental measurement, calculation and interpretation. Particular attention is given to calibration, sample preparation, reagent quality, contamination control and laboratory safe

This chapter introduces the chemical nature of wool as a keratin-based protein fibre rich in sulphur-containing amino acids. It examines keratin structure, peptide and disulphide bonds, amino-acid composition, amphoteric behaviour and reactions with acids, alkalis, oxidising and reducing agents. The chapter explains the chemical basis of dyeing, swelling, felting, shrinkage and finishing treatments. Understanding these properties is essential for controlling wool processing while preserving fibre strength, appearance and functional performance.

2.1. Classification of Fish

Fish are incredibly diverse aquatic vertebrates. There are over 32,000 de scribed species of bony fish, over 1,100 species of cartilaginous fish, and over 100 hagfish and lampreys. Fish can be broadly classified into three groups:

2.1.1. Superclass Agnatha (Jawless fish): These are the most primitive fish, lacking jaws and paired fins. They have existed for over 500 million years. Examples include lampreys and hagfish.

2.1.2. Class Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous fish): These fish have skeletons made of cartilage instead of bone. They have jaws and paired fins. Examples include sharks, skates, and rays.

2.1.3. Superclass Osteichthyes (Bony fish): This is the largest and most diverse group of fish. They have skeletons made of bone and have jaws and paired fins. Examples include tuna, salmon, goldfish, and many more.

4.1. Classification

The class Aves, also known as birds, is a group of warm-blooded vertebrates characterized by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, laying hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweight skeleton. Birds are found worldwide and come in a variety of sizes, from the tiny humming bird to the massive ostrich.

The classification of Aves can be broken down into two major subgroups: Palaeognathae and Neognathae.

4.1.1. Palaeognathae: Also known as ratites, these are flightless birds with f lat sterna (breastbones) that lack keels, which are important for flight muscle attachment. Examples of palaeognathae include ostriches, emus, rheas, and kiwis.

Carnivora is an order of placental mammals that have specialized in primarily eating flesh, whose members are formally referred to as carnivorans. The order Carnivora is the fifth largest order of mammals, comprising at least 279 species. They come in a very large array of different body plans with a wide diversity of shapes and sizes. The common characteristics of carnivores are given below:

• They are meat eaters.

• There is the presence of canine teeth.

• The intestinal tract is short and is adapted to rapid digestion as well as the assimilation of meat.

• All species have anal glands. Some species, like the striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis), may eject the contents of the anal gland as a defensive maneuver.

• Os penis is present in males.

• There is a lack of a clavicle which helps in the freedom of movement of the forelimb.

• Ulna is well developed.

• Toes end in claws.

9.1. Classification: Order Perissodactyla

The order Perissodactyla, also known as odd-toed ungulates, is a group of herbivorous mammals characterized by having one or three toes on each foot. They are distinguished from even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla) by this anatomical feature. Even-toed ungulates, such as pigs, cows, and deer, have an even number of toes (two or four) on each foot. Some of the well-known members of this order include horses, zebras, asses, tapirs, and rhinoceroses.

The name “Perissodactyla” comes from the Greek words “perissos,” meaning “odd,” and “daktylos,” meaning “finger or toe,” referring to their unique foot structure. Unlike even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla), which bear weight on their third and fourth toes, perissodactyls primarily bear weight on their third toe.

7.1. Introduction

Chemical restraint of insectivores is a technique used by veterinarians and wildlife biologists to immobilize small mammals that primarily eat insects, such as shrews, moles, and hedgehogs. It is essential for performing examinations, administering medications, and conducting research on these animals.

There are several factors to consider when chemically restraining insectivores:

• Species: Different species of insectivores may have varying degrees of sensitivity to different drugs.

• Age and health: Younger and healthier animals generally tolerate chemical restraint better than older or sick animals.

• Temperature: Insectivores are sensitive to temperature regulation, so it’s crucial to maintain a stable body temperature during restraint.

10.1. Classification of Primates

The classification of primates is a complex topic that has been revised over time as our understanding of these fascinating creatures has evolved. Here’s a breakdown of the current classification system:

10.1.1. Order: Primates

Primates are an order of mammals that includes lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans. They are characterized by a number of shared features, including:

• Opposable thumbs: This allows primates to grasp objects and manipulate their environment.

• Forward-facing eyes: This provides primates with depth perception, which is important for arboreal locomotion and foraging.

• Enlarged brains: Primates have relatively large brains for their body size, which is associated with their intelligence and complex social behaviors.

• Reduced sense of smell:Compared to other mammals, primates have a weaker sense of smell. This is thought to be due to their reliance on vision for foraging and social interaction.

3.1. Introduction

Various procedures performed on reptiles often necessitate chemical restraint or general anesthesia. Even routine tasks like physical examination and transportation can pose challenges, particularly with large or uncooperative reptilian patients. For safety reasons, venomous species are typically evaluated under chemical restraint. The respiratory anatomy and physiology of reptiles differ significantly from those of more familiar mammals, influencing their response to commonly used anesthetic agents. Historically, anesthetics recommended for reptiles had notable metabolic effects, but inhalant anesthesia has become more popular in recent times. Nonetheless, in species capable of anaerobic metabolism, induction with these agents may not be feasible (Girling 2013).

Rodents and lagomorphs are two distinct groups of mammals, often mistaken for each other due to some shared physical characteristics. However, they belong to different taxonomic orders and possess several key differences

5.1. Rodents

They belong to the order Rodentia and the example species include rats, mice, squirrels, hamsters, guinea pigs, beavers, and porcupines. Order Rodentia is the largest and most diversified mammalian group, differing widely in size, behavior, feeding habits, anatomy, and physiology. Based on the anatomy and functional differences of masseter muscles, it is divided into 3 suborders viz., Caviomorpha, Myomorpha, and Sciuromorpha. Caviomorpha is also called hystrichomorpha and includes guinea pigs, chinchillas and degu. The suborder Myomorpha includes mice, rats, hamsters and gerbils. These animals have the strongest ability to gnaw among animals in all 3 suborders. Sciuridae is a family that includes small or medium size rodents. This family consists of tree squirrels, ground or medium size squirrels, and large size squirrels also known as marmots or prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus). Smaller and less bushy tailed squirrels are known as chipmunks (Tamias striatus) and flying squirrels (Glaucomys volans).

8.1. Classification

The ruminants belong to the Order Artiodactyla. The families in order of Artiodactyla include Camelidae, Tragulidae, Cervidae, Giraffidae, Antliocapridae, and Bovidae.

The family Camelidae includesGuanaco (Lama guanicoe), Llama (Lama glama), Alpaca or South American camelid mammal (Lama pacos), Dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius), and Bactrian or two-humped camels (Camelus bactrianus).

The family Tragulidae includes Chevrotains originate from Africa (Hyumo schusaquaticus) and Chevrotains that originate from Asia (Tragulus species).

The family CervidaeincludesWhite tailed deer(Odococlius virginianus), Follow deer (Dama dama), Roe-deer (Capreolus capreolus), Axis deer (Axis axis), Reindeer (Rangiter tarandus), Musk deer (Moschus species) and Chinese water deer (Hydropotes species).

1.1. Introduction

Wildlife management often requires interventions to safely handle and transport animals. Chemical restraint, also known as immobilization or tranquilization, is a technique widely used to facilitate these processes (Hernandez, 2014). It involves the administration of drugs to temporarily immobilize wild animals, allowing for various procedures such as veterinary medical examinations, tagging, relocation, or rehabilitation. This chapter provides an overview of the principles, methods, drugs, and considerations involved in the chemical restraint of wild animals.

It has been often stated that the most important techniques required by the zoo veterinarian are those used in the capture and restraint of the patient. These techniques have developed into a highly technical science (Clarke et al., 2014). In the early days of zoos, the only practical method was to manually catch and hold the patient. Modern techniques, however, permit a veterinarian to shoot a CO2 powered gun, which discharges a projectile syringe at an animal resulting in complete immobilization of the animal (Jacques et al., 2009). This is accomplished without any physical contact between the patient and his captors.

The constitution of different solutions plays a significant role in successful demonstration of anatomical techniques especially the special stains. The sincerety begins at the time of fixation of the tissues and deviation at any step may lead to failure of procedure. The chemical reagents required for a particular method have been enlisted at their sites however; the commonly used chemicals are comprehended at one place for convenience of the users.

Synthesis of Zn Oxide Nanoparticle

Aim

To synthesize Zn oxide nanoparticle

Introduction

Zinc oxide nanoparticle are effective anti-bacterial and antiodur agent. They can be synthesized by number of techniques including hydrothermal methods. Their synthesis using solvothermal process is described, (Aneesh et al., 2007).

Chemical Synthesis Methods

Several methods can be used for the production of these nanoparticles, namely: (i) top-down methods (Li et al., 2006) such as vacuum sputtering (Kuhn et al., 2002) or the decomposition of iron penta carbonyl (Fe(CO)5) in organic solvents (Karlsson et al., 2005); and (ii) bottom-up methods that promote the ‘growth’ of the nanostructures via chemical synthesis, for example through the reaction of iron(II) or iron(III) salts with sodium borohydride (Wang and Zhang, 1997). However, these methods present several limitations and problems; the top-down methods are generally expensive and require specific and costly equipment while the drawbacks of the bottom-up approaches are related to safety issues due to the toxicity of sodium borohydride, the production of flammable hydrogen gas during the process (Li et al., 2006), and the tendency to form large agglomerates, very fast and at a high extent, and therefore have a reduced reactivity and degradation efficiency.

Laboratory Tests

Sampling procedures

Samples from number of containers- As soon as the cans are received at the reception dock, remove the lid, mix contents of each can with a plunger and draw equal quantities from each container and mix together. Draw approximately 80 – 100 ml of sample for testing. If the cans are of same diameter, Alternatively, milk from different containers are first poured into a vat and then the sample is drawn by thorough mixing as above..

Samples from storage tank – Before drawing sample from storage tank, switch on the mechanical agitator and allow the contents to mix for 15-20 minutes. Discard first 1.0 L of milk. Transfer 250-500 ml of the mixed milk from the outlet valve into a sample bottle.

Samples from rail / road tankers- Open the lid of the tanker and insert a big plunger through the main hole and move it forward, downward and backward bring the plunger to the surface at each stroke. Continue mixing for 15-20 minutes. Draw proportionate quantities of sample with the help of suitable dipper from different levels. Draw 250-500 ml of well-mixed sample into the sample bottle. The total volume of individual composite sample should not be less than 150 ml.

Introduction

The compounds produced one kind of microbe that are poisonous to another type of microbes are known as antibiotics. Actinomycetous bacteria and certain fungi are the primary producers of antibiotics. Antibiotics have highly complicated chemical makeups and formulations, which are frequently unknown. To combat plant diseases, however, antibiotics were first introduced in 1950. Typically, plants absorb and then move systemically internal antibiotics used for managing plant diseases. Usually, they operate on the host or the pathogen directly or after going through transformation to control plant diseases. In addition to acting as eradicators, they also serve as protectors and offer resistance to the invasion of viruses, and their impact lasts for a while.

Introduction

• Nematicides are chemically synthesized products that kill or adversely affect nematodes.

• These products can have a nematicidal or nemastatic effect on nematodes.

• Nematicidal compounds are highly toxic and kill exposed nematodes.

• Nemastatic compounds do not kill nematodes but interfere with the migration of nematodes towards the roots of the host plant or delay nematode hatching.

• Many nematicides are broad spectrum, volatile, soil fumigant.

• They are not only active against nematodes, but also insects, fungi, bacteria, weed seeds and almost everything else that lives on the ground.