eChapters

Hybridization is a potent technique to create variability for selection and breaking yield barriers, evolve varieties having built in high potential. The selection of suitable parents for hybridization is one of the most important step in hybridization program. Selection of parents on the basis of phenotypic performance alone is not a sound procedure since phenotypically superior lines may yield poor recombinations in the segregating generations. It is therefore essential that parents are chosen on the basis of their genetic value. Some of the commonly utilized techniques for assessing the genetic value of a genotype are:

Introduction

The emerging functional foods market presents a considerable challenge to all manufacturers to keep abreast of the use of adequate packaging materials for their products. The interest in functional foods is intrinsically linked to the potential health benefits of their bioactive components. Preserving these bioactive components is, therefore, a crucial factor to providing the anticipated health benefits of functional foods. However, recurring failure in maintaining the quality of functional foods has been reported. Functional foods include a wide variety of products such as prebiotics and probiotics, dried foods (fibers, tea, herbs, etc.), fermented products (yogurts, kefirs, vegetables), and fresh fruits and vegetables. Their bioactive components (minerals, vitamins, fibers, peptides, proteins, w–3 polyunsaturated fats, antioxidants, enzymes, and symbiotics) range from very simple molecules to complex living organisms such as bacteria.

Chow-Chow [Sechium edule (Jacq.) Swartz] is used in many parts of Latin America, humid tropical regions of Central America and Southern Mexico. It is cultivated in South East Asia (India, Malaysia, Indonesia and Phillipines), Central and Western Africa, Central and South America (Brazil) and other tropical regions. (Dutta 1994). In India, local cultivars are commonly grown in coastal and low-hills (1000-2000m) of Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamilnadu. In Tamil, it is called “Seeme Kattrikkai” (Bailey, 1947). It is an important part of dietary system of tribals of  North East Regions. It is found in kitchen gardens of every tribal. It is found in almost all states and regions but maximum variability is found in Sikkim, Mizoram and Meghalaya (Yadav et al., 2005). Its variable fruits and roots, are important elements in diet of people. Chow-Chow is widespread and is an important export crop for  Latin American countries, much still need to be learned  about this crop (Rafael Lira Saade,1996). Chow-Chow is a single seeded fruit of  Cucurbitaceous family (MacGillivray, 1953). It is a perennial rooted vine that bears edible fruits (Thompson and Kelly, 1957). In subtropical and tropical regions, it produces large edible tuberous roots. It thrives under moderate temperature in  tropical or semi-tropical environment, though it can also be successfully grown under high temperature near sea level. Chow-Chow is a herbaceous perennial creeper (Choudhury, 1967) and is a robust grower in warmer months of year and during  cold weather of July and August  plant dies back temporarily. It has a viviparous type of germination (Patnaik, 1967). S.edule is called chayote, probably from  Greek ‘Sekos’ to  fatten in a fold because it was fed to hogs ( Bailey, 1963).

Nutrition plays a pivotal role for the animal research, be it health or production. Research in animal nutrition employs many basic techniques and chromatography is one of them. Chromatographic processes can be defined as separation techniques involving mass transfer between stationary and mobile phases. Various types of chromatography have one application or the other in analysis of food/feed components (Day and Williamson, 2001), quantitation of nutrients as well as the characterization of the effect of nutrients in biological samples like serum/plasma or tissues (Merken and Beecher, 2000).

A. Principle

Basically all chromatographic systems consist of the stationary phase that may be solid,gel,liquid or a solid/liquid mixture that is immobilized and the mobile phase, which may be gas or liquid and it flows over or through the stationary phase. This partition is achieved in one of the following ways:

Adsorption chromatography : It is one of the oldest types of chromatography. It utilizes a mobile liquid or a gaseous phase that is adsorbed onto the surface of a stationary solid phase. The equilibrium between the mobile and the stationary phase accounts the separation of different solutes e.g. adsorption chromatography, hydrophobic interaction chromatography.

Partition chromatography : It is based on a thin film formed on the surface of a solid support by a liquid stationary phase. Solutes equilibrate between the mobile and the stationary liquid (e.g. partition chromatography, reverse phase chromatography, gas-liquid chromatography, etc.).

Chromatography is a general technique available for the separation of closely related compounds in a sample. The term chromatography is derived from Greek where chroma means colour and graphein means to write. It is a very useful technique for both qualitative (preparative ) and quantitative (analytical) analyses. The separation is effected by the differential distribution of the components between two immiscible phases, namely, stationary and mobile phases. The various constituents of the mixture travel at different speeds, causing them to separate. The separation is based on differential partitioning (partition coefficient) between the mobile and stationary phases. The stationary phase is a porous medium through which the sample mixture percolates under the influence of a moving solvent (mobile phase).

Research related to biochemical analysis has been greatly benefited due to the development of chromatographic technique, since this technique makes it possible to resolve mixtures of closely related substances on a milligram to picogram range and to identify individual components by comparison with reference standard compounds. Chromatography ‘gives information where other analytical means have failed’ [Tswett, M. (1906) The macro-chemical and micro-chemical detection of carotene. Ber. Deut. Botan.Ges. 24 : 384- 393].

The relationship between gene and chromosome was suspected at the time of rediscovery of Mendelian^, Laws. During that period Montgomery (1901) and Walter Sutton (1902) working on grasshoppers showed that chromosomes occur in distinct pairs, often of recognizable shape and size, and that synapsis involves the union of maternal and paternal chromosomes, while Winiwarter (1901) concluded from his studies in rabbit ovaries that bivalents in the first meiotic division resulted from the chromosome pairing side by side and not end to end as believed by some other workers of that time . Theodor Bovery (1902) showed from his work on polyspermy in the fertilization of sea urchin eggs that the chromosomes of an individual were not equivalent (genetic information) to one another and hence a full chromosomal complement is essential for normal development of cell. Correns (1902) and Cannon (1902) pointed out close parallelism between Mendelian segregation and chromosome reduction during meiosis and concluded that genes are located on chromosomes but they, like de Vries, supposed that maternal and paternal chromosomes move to opposite poles during meiosis. In the same year Guyer established an understanding that random assortment between different pairs of chromosomes would give the independent assortment of genes required by Mendel. Ultimately Sutton (1903) brought together the ideas from cytology and genetics to clearly show the role of chromosomes in heredity and hence to establish the field of cytogenetics. Boveri also through his work, advanced many of the same ideas and thus the hypothesis correlating genes and chromosome transmission was established, which is known as the “Sutton-Boveri Hypothesis or chromosome theory of inheritance”.

Since the linking of the abnormal chromosome constitution of 45, XO to the peculiar phenotype of Turner’s syndrome (Ford 1959), an increased interest in the association between abnormal chromosome constitution and some clinical syndromes was perceived worldwide. The advent of “banding” techniques in the late 1960s helped to refine the detection accuracy and provided for more and better information about cytogenetic make-up of cells and contributed significantly to the localisation of certain genes (McKusik 1992). This phenotypic-karyotypic correlation was done on the basis of visual deletions, insertions, and duplications etc. of DNA segments of various lengths. However, many instances are known in which, because of a parent carrying a balanced translocation, two or more offsprings suffer from a deficiency and/or excess of chromosomal material. Some familial chromosomal arrangements are beyond detection by our current cytogenetic methods, although remarkable results have been forthcoming with high resolution banding. Similarly, paracentric inversions in a parent may not be evident except when carefully studied with high resolution banding, but can give rise to a variety of abnormalities in children.

Introduction
Chromosome engineering has emerged as a revolutionary approach, offering immense potential for genetic improvement by manipulating the structure and composition of chromosomes. Using genome engineering technologies, it is possible to introduce desirable traits into plants, such as disease resistance, increased yield, and enhanced nutritional content. To sustain the current standard of living, agriculture must yield significant increase in production (Gerland et al. 2014). Novel cutting-edge techniques developed for chromosome engineering hold great promise for addressing the challenges faced by modern agriculture, including climate change and food security. Engineering ability to precisely modify the genetic makeup of plants, chromosome engineering opens new avenues for creating novel cultivars with improved characteristics. While classical breeding has been successful in developing improved cultivars, it has its limitations. The process is time-consuming and often relies on probability to bring desired genetic changes. Since genes are organized into chromosomes, one important step to solve this issue is the development of novel genetic tools for chromosome reorganization and manipulation. When (Sears 1956) used X-ray irradiation to introduce foreign chromosome segments into the wheat chromosomes to transfer new traits, it was the beginning of plant chromosome engineering. Since then, plant chromosome engineering has evolved.
Applying methods such as chemicals and X-rays, induced mutagenesis was essential to the Green Revolution. Induction of polyploidy yielded more vigor and benefits like larger and higher-quality fruits (Osborn et al. 2003). Insect resistant and herbicide resistant transgenic crops successfully contributed to enhanced food production with less input into the farms. Genome editing enables precise modifications to increase disease resistance and stress tolerance (Ma et al. 2015). Considering practical features of chromosome engineering, this article discusses the use of induced mutagenesis, polyploidy induction, transgenesis, and genome editing, as the practical tools. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an in-depth analysis of chromosome engineering, exploring its scope, historical milestones, techniques, and its contributions to genetic diversity improvement and crop improvement. It also highlights the importance of efficient delivery techniques to overcome constraints such as off-target effects and concerns about genetically modified organisms (GMOs).

(Chroma - Colour; Some - Body)
A chromosome is a thread-like self-replicating genetic structure containing organized DNA molecule package found in the nucleus of the cell. Clear and detaile decriptions of mitotic chromosomes in plants and animals were published by Strasburger in 1875 and by the German scientist Walter Flemming in 1879- 1882.Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried Waldeyer coined the term chromosome in 1888.
Normally Chromosomes are of two types
Autosomes - Control characters other than sex characters or carry genes for somatic characters.
Sex chromosomes (S    
Humans and most other mammals have two sex chromosomes X & Y, also called heterosome, odd chromosome, or idiosome. Females have two X chromosomes in diploid cells; males have an X and a Y chromosome. In birds the female (ZW) is hetero-gametic and male (ZZ) is homo-gametic.
Haploid: Haploid cells (N) have only one copy of each chromosome.
Diploid: Diploid cells (2N where N- chromosome number) have two homologous copies of each chromosome. The body cells of animals are diploid.In animals, gametes (sperm and eggs) are haploid.
Homologous Chromosomes
Diploid organisms have two copies of each chromosome (except the sex chromosomes). Both the copies are ordinarily identical in morphology, gene content and gene order and hence known as homologous chromosomes.Each pair of chromosomes made up of two homologs.
Homologous chromosome is inherited from separate parents; one homolog comes from the mother and the other comes from the father.

Chromosomes are giant molecules of DNA

Found in nucleus: never leave except in cell division

Carry hereditary units, genes

Two homologous copies in diplod cells

Unwind when replicating or making RNA

Wind up (condense) in cell division

Attach to spindle and separate in meiosis & mitosis

Crossing over in prophase of 1st meiotic division

Chromosomes are equally distributed in mitosis, meiosis

Gametes have half the number of chromosomes as body cells

Sister chromatids are observed to split apart longitudinally in anaphase

Portrait of a Chromosome

• Cytogenetics is the study of chromosome abnormalities and associated effects on health or other traits.
• Excess or deficient genetic material can cause syndromes or end prenatal development.
• Chromosomes consist of highly coiled DNA, RNA, histones, and nonhistone proteins.

Telomeres and Centromeres are Essential

Telomeres consist of repeat sequences and protect chromosome tips.

A centromere is a constricted site where spindle fibers attach during cell division.

Centromeres are regions of repeated DNA bound to centromere-associated proteins.

Weaning foods

Introduction

Breast milk is natural and best for the growth and development of newborn babies. Although breast milk is adequate to provide an optimum nutrient till the age of six months but after that it is not sufficient to sustain optimum growth and fulfill their nutritional requirements. Various nutrients are required to supplement milk until child is ready to eat adult meal. This additional food along with the breast milk is referred as “complementary Food”. With adequate amount of complementary feeding breast-feeding continues up to two years of age and beyond so, referred as complementary feeding period.

Appropriate and adequate amount of complementary feeding helps in preventing malnutrition stunting and promoting growth. Introduction of this complementary food is called as weaning.

Weaning is the process of introducing adult food and beverage to the infant to support their growth and development. This is very crucial period in infant’s life. This is a period for diet transition as the nutrition requirements for growth and brain development is quite high. Introduction of various taste and texture promotes biting and chewing skills (Guthrie, 1975). Most six-month age children start eating semisolid foods. Weaning homogenized infant foods play a major role in the nutrition of infants (Martinez, 2004).As infants grow, their nutritional requirements also increase. To keep up this growing demand WHO recommends that infants start eating solid, semi-solid or soft foods at the age of 6 months to ensure sufficient nutrient intake.

Botany :Annual Chrysanthemum is a winter annual that can be grown either as pot plants or in groups as bed plants for various ornamental purposes. There are two types of annual Chyrsanthemums: Chrysanthemum Segetum and C.coronarium. Major varieties of Chrysanthemum segetum L. are Morning Star, Evening Star, Eastern Star, Blanca, Eldorado, Gloria, Isabel, Romeo, and yellow Stone while popular cultivars of C. coronarium L. include Nivea, Oreon, Albo, Golden Crown, Luteum, Tom Thumb Golden Gem, Tom Thumb-Primrose Gem and Tetra Comet. In addition to this, there is another type of annual Chrysanthemum, i.e. C. carinatum. Popular varieties of C. carinatum S. are Merry, Atrococcineum, Burridgeanum, Eclipse, Flammenspiel, John Bright and Northern Star.

Propagation

Annual Chrysanthemums can be propagated by seeds. Their sowing time depends upon climate. It varies in different parts of India. In the Northern plains, winter season annual Chrysanthemums are sown during September–October. The seeds are sown in nursery beds, earthen pots, seed pans or wooden seed trays. The seed compost should consist of one part each of garden soil, coarse sand, farmyard manure and leaf-mould. For preparing the nursery beds, the soil should be dug up thoroughly and sufficient farmyard manure, should be mixed in soil. Raised nursery beds of convenient size (normally 60cm wide and 15cm high) should be prepared. If soil is heavy, some quantity of sand may be added. It is better if the soil of nursery bed or earthen pots is sterilized with 2% formalin. For this, soil is drenched with formalin solution and is covered with polythene sheet for 45hr. Afterwards, the polythene is removed and soil is dried before sowing the seeds.

1. Introduction

Chrysanthemum is commonly known as ‘Guldaoudi’, “Queen of the East”, “Glory of East” or “Autumn Queen”. It is one of the most beautiful and widely cultivated flowers that can be grown for its aesthetic value as well as for its commercial potential. The word chrysanthemum is derived from two Greek words, viz. “Chrysos” means gold and “Anthemon” means ‘flower’ i.e. golden flower. Chrysanthemum is the only crop that offers a great genetic diversity of flower colour, shape, forms, size, easy to propagate, growing habit, longer flowering duration and excellent vase life. Based on the shape of flower heads and floret arrangement of petals it can be used as pot plants for indoors and outdoors decoration as well as exhibition purpose; as cut flowers for flower arrangements, bouquets making and vase decoration; loose flower for making garlands, worshipping purpose and for bedding and garden decoration. Tall cultivars are suitable for background planting in borders and the dwarf and compact can be planted in front rows. 

Chrysomelid beetle : Aulacophora foveicollis : ChrysomelidaeAphids : Macrosiphoniella  sanborni; Myzus  persicae; Brachicaudus  helichrysi; Aphis  gossypi; Aphis fabae; Aulocorthum circumflexum: Aphid

Chrysanthemum   is infested by different species of aphids. Aphids are small, soft bodied insects and their colour varies with species. Both nymphs and adults cluster on the growing stem tips and under surface of leaves. As a result, the plants show loss of vigor, distortion of leaves and flowers, yellowing, premature leaf fall and stunted growth. The damaged plants bear only undersized buds and they remain unopened. Peak damage period is November-December. Secretion of honeydew by the aphids favor development of sooty mould which hinders photosynthesis and the plants become stunted. They are also vectors of virus diseases.

Chrysanthemum (chrysos =golden; anthos = flower) is a popular flower crop of commercial importance known as the “Queen of the East”. It ranks next only to rose among flower crops in the world.

Chrysanthemum (Dendranthema spp.) belongs to family Compositae (Asteraceae). It was named by Carolus Linnaeus from the Greek prefix “chrys” means golden and “anthemon” means flower. Chrysanthemum morifolium is the modern florists chrysanthemum, which evolved as a result of endless variation and hybridization from C. sinensis, C. indicum and C. ornatum (Bailey, 1963). This group is also distinguished as C. hortorum. The name of C. morifolium Ramat has been changed to Dendranthema grandiflora Tzvelev (Anderson, 1987, Heywood and Humphries, 1977). Chrysanthemums are mainly herbaceous perennial and bear flowers in capitula. Chrysanthemum perennates in nature by means of stolons and is readily propagated through basal stem cuttings. It ranks second next to roses in importance among the cut flower crops in the world.

Chrysanthemum (Dendranthema spp.) belongs to family Compositae (Asteraceae). It was named by Carolus Linnaeus from the Greek prefix “chrys” means golden and “anthemon” means flower. Chrysanthemum morifolium is the modern florists chrysanthemum, which evolved as a result of endless variation and hybridization from C. sinensis, C. indicum and C. ornatum (Bailey, 1963). This group is also distinguished as C. hortorum. The name of C. morifolium Ramat has been changed to Dendranthema grandiflora Tzvelev (Anderson, 1987, Heywood and Humphries, 1977). Chrysanthemums are mainly herbaceous perennial and bear flowers in capitula. Chrysanthemum perennates in nature by means of stolons and is readily propagated through basal stem cuttings. It ranks second next to roses in importance among the cut flower crops in the world.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Chrysanthemum is originated in northern hemisphere (Europe and Asia). However, some workers reported that China is the native place of chrysanthemum (Carter, 1980). Most of the species in the lineage of present day cultivars are from China.

Chrysanthemum was first cultivated in China as a flowering herb and is described in writing as early as 15^th century B.C. As herb, it was believed to have the power of life. In 18^th century, they appeared in Japan as the crest and official seal of the Emperor. Japan also has a national chrysanthemum day, which is called the Festival of Happiness. In the western world, they are introduced in England, Japan, France and U.S. have developed a wide range of colours, shapes and sizes of flowers. Since the chrysanthemum was first introduced in the U.S. during colonial times, its popularity has grown such that mums now reign as undisputed ‘Queen of the Fall Flowers’. The Netherlands is the foremost importer of chrysanthemum cut flowers and is the centers for re-export to other parts of the world. In India, chrysanthemum is successfully grown under protected as well as open conditions in different states.

INTRODUCTION

The chrysanthemum is one of the most beautiful and perhaps the oldest flowering plant, commercially grown in different parts of the world. It is commonly known as Queen of East, Autumn Queen and Guldaudi. It is im ortant both as cut flower and as potted plant in the international market. In Dutch cut flower auction, chrysanthemum ranks second after rose. It is preferred practically due to vast range of shapes and sizes of flowers, brilliance of colour tones, long lasting floret life, diversity of height and growth habit of the plant, exceptionally hardy nature, relative ease to grow all the year round and versatility of use.

It is one of the most important traditional flowers of India mainly used as a potted plant, loose flower, cut flower and as border plant in the garden. Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium inflorescences are of considerable importance in the manufacture of pyrethrin insecticides. The leaves of Chrysanthemum balsamita become leathery on drying and can be used as bookmarks. Fresh young customary leaves can be used in salads and to add a balsam flavour in beer, soups and bread. Now programmed blooming of chrysanthemum all the year around is possible by environmental manipulations.

Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium) is a popular flowering plant grown for its magnificent flowers in wide range of colour. There are various size of flowers like mini, small and large. Forms of the flowers also vary from ball shape to spider type. In ornamental gardening, Chrysanthemum is used as bedding as well as pot plant. Cut-flowers are also very popular for vase decoration and commercially important. Flowers of the small-flowered cultivars are also used as loose flowers for making garland and floral ornaments.

Classification

There is huge diversity in the form and types of Chrysanthemum. Therefore, one has to know the various types of flowers, growth habit and their use in the gardens.

Abstract: Chrysanthemum, commonly known as Queen of East, is perhaps oldest flowering plant, commercially grown in different parts of the world in a wide range of floricultural product including potted plants, cut flowers and garden plant. Vast range of shapes and sizes of flowers, brilliance of colour tones, long lasting bloom, ease of production and cultivation all the year round, range of plant habits from pot mums to tall shrub, hardy nature, and versatility of use make this a versatile floriculture crop, wide range of polyploidy level (diploid to decaploid) is found in different cultivars and are almost exclusively asexually propagated. The crop arises from multiple species, its allopolyploid nature has complicated progress in crop development due to inbreeding depression, genetic load and aneuploidy. Precise genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop; plant breeding continues to produce new variants for commercial production. Currently, numerous varieties have been developed through complex interspecific crosses among elemental species, open pollination, indiscriminate Intervarietal hybridization, spontaneous and induced mutation, selection, and management of chimera. Number of traits targeted for genetic intervention have been presented and discussed. Crop idiotypes for product classes prescribe numerous traits for incorpotion by flower breeders and geneticists including compact framework to withstand bloom for pot mums, long lasting bloom colour with enhanced shelf life for cut flower and sweet scented blooms with extended blooming season for garland use.

Introduction

The chrysanthemum is one of the most beautiful and perhaps the oldest flowering plant. It is commercially grown in different parts of the world. Chrysanthemum is commonly known as Guldaudi. In Dutch cut flower auction, chrysanthemum ranks second after rose. It is preferred practically due to vast range of shapes and sizes of flowers, brilliance of colour tones, long lasting floret life, diversity of height and growth habit of the plant, exceptionally hardy nature, relative ease to grow all the year round and versatility of use.

It is one of the most important traditional flowers of India mainly used as a potted plant, loose flower, cut flower and as border plant in the garden. Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium inflorescences are of considerable importance in the manufacture of pyrethrin insecticides.

Chrysanthemum takes its name derived from the Greek word chryos meaning gold and anthos meaning a flower, as many species have yellow flower heads. The genus Chrysanthemum belongs to family Asteraceae. It is herbaceous perennial plant. The genus comprises some 200 species of annuals, perennials and shrubs from northern temperate zone (chiefly Europe and Asia), whereas some researchers claim it was originated only from China. Though botanists have retained only the annual species under the genus Chrysanthemum (Beckett, 1983; Dole and Wilkins, 1999).

Annual chrysanthemums which are propagated through seeds. Annual chrysanthemum comprise ofthree species viz, Chrysanthemum segtum (corn marigold), Chrysanthemum carinatum (tricoloured chrysanthemum) and Chrysanthemum coronarium (crown daisy or garland chrysanthemum). The crown daisy or garland chrysanthemum (C. coronarium) is a native from Southern Europe, branching annual with finely cut foliage reaching a height up to a metre, size of flowers varies from 2.5 to 4 cm and colour is usually in shades of yellow and white with cream zone at the center (Vishnu Swarup, 1967).

Importance and Uses

Chrysanthemum is the number one dollar earning flower in the United States and cultivars suitable for growing throughout the year have been evolved there. The members of National Chrysanthemum Society run into thousands in several countries. It ranks second (next to rose) in the international cut flower trade. In India, it occupies a place of pride both as a commercial flower, garden plant, pot plant and as a popular exhibition flower.

Large number of chrysanthemum cultivars which exhibit wide variation for characters like growth habit, size, colour and shape of blooms makes chrysanthemum suitable for varied purpose. Its erect and tall growing cultivars are suitable for background planting in borders and as cut- flowers. The dwarf and compact growing ones are suitable for front row planting or pot culture. The decorative and fluffy bloomed small flowered cultivars are ideal for preparation of garland and hair decoration. The extra large- bloomed cultivars are prized for their exhibition value. Certain species like Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium and Chrysanthemum coccineum are cultivated as sources of pyrethrum, a natural insecticide.

Chrysanthemum is an economically important flower crop cultivated extensively for cut flowers, loose flowers and ornamental purposes. This chapter presents its origin, taxonomy, genetics, botanical features and commercially important varieties. Production technologies include propagation, nursery management, planting, spacing, nutrient management, irrigation, pinching, disbudding, photoperiodic manipulation and protected cultivation. Major pests and diseases and their management are described along with harvesting, grading, postharvest treatment and yield. The chapter emphasizes the importance of crop regulation and environmental management for producing uniform, marketable stems. It provides practical guidance for growers and students studying commercial chrysanthemum production and floriculture. under diverse Indian production conditions.

Chrysanthemum is one of the important commercial loose flower crops in India, valued for its wide range of flower forms, colours, sizes and long-lasting florets. It is extensively used for religious offerings, garlands, Veni, bouquets and ornamental purposes. The chapter describes its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics and important annual and perennial types. It provides information on suitable varieties, climate, soil, propagation and field establishment. Production practices including nutrient management, irrigation, pinching and other cultural operations are explained systematically. The chapter also discusses important pests and diseases, harvesting, postharvest management and yield, providing a practical foundation for commercial chrysanthemum cultivation and floriculture teaching.

This chapter introduces chrysanthemum as one of the world's important commercial cut flowers, particularly suited to controlled production because flowering is strongly influenced by environmental conditions. It discusses standard and spray types, origin, genetics, botanical characteristics, varieties and greenhouse cultivation. Temperature, humidity, light regulation, carbon dioxide, nutrition, irrigation, pest and disease management, harvesting, grading and storage are covered. The chapter also highlights the use of modern breeding and protected environments for year-round production.

ABSTRACT

We report here the occurrence of chrysoberyl bearing gem pegmatitesof Southern India. The Pan-African Chrysoberyl mineralization is associated with intrusive event of grey pegmatites within granulite facies parametamorphic aluminous khondalites. Lithological and structural controls of chrysoberyl mineralization are discussed. The chrysoberyl occurrences in southern India, southern Madagascar and Sri Lanka provide strong evidence for India-Sri Lanka-Madagascar juxtaposition in the East Gondwana assembly with the Achankovil Shear Zone of Southern India one side extending into Ranotsara Shear Zone in Southern Madagascar and other side into southern tip of Sri Lanka.

CINCHON, a place where the Countess Ann, a wife of the 4^th Count of CINCHON lived. She was cured by tertian fever in 1638 by the use of cinchona bark. Its virtues were made known to Europe in 1640. The botanists identified it in 1717. This drug shows the pathway for the establishment of homoeopathy.

The key word in the prescribing of China is 'debility' or weakness caused by excessive loss of blood or other fluids from the body, through nursing or salivation or excessive and bloody leucorrhoea, menstruation or long-continuing diarrhoea or through profuse pus formation or after an attack of influenza. There may be haemorrhages from the wounds, the lungs, the bowels or from the nose, a sudden depletion leading to fainting, loss of sight, ringing in the ears or to an over all weakness of the body. China acts as a marvelous remedy in such cases. The dose should be frequently repeated in 200 potency.

Scientific name: Cinchona spp.
Family: Rubiaceae
Cinchona, a genus of flowering plants, comprises approximately 65 species. Several species, including Cinchona succirubra, C. officinalis, and C. ledgeriana, are cultivated for their bark, which contains quinine and other antimalarial compounds.
Origin and distribution
Native to the highlands of South America, Cinchona was introduced to India's Nilgiris in 1859. It is currently cultivated in the Anamalai and Nilgiris hills of Tamil Nadu, as well as in Darjeeling, West Bengal.
Botany
Cinchona is a majestic evergreen plant that can grow to varying heights, ranging from 5 to 15 meters. Its trunk is covered with a smooth, greyish-brown bark that peels off in thin layers. The branches are slender, pubescent, and arranged in a whorled pattern. The leaves of the Cinchona plant are simple, oppositely arranged, and decussate. They are elliptical or lanceolate in shape, with a pointed apex and a rounded base. The leaves are 10-20 cm long, 2-5 cm wide, and have a leathery texture. The upper surface is dark green, glossy, and glabrous, while the lower surface is pale green, pubescent, and has prominent midribs.

4.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in the central hills of Sri Lanka and Malabar Coast.

• Distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of North America, Central America, South America, Asia, Oceania

• Cultivated in Sri Lanka, Malagasy Republic and Seychelles.

• In India, it is grown in one or two locations in Kerala

4.2. Economic importance

• Commercial products are

? Quills: Scraped peel of inner bark of mature cinnamon shoots, joined together with overlapping tubes, hollow of which has been filled with smaller pieces of cinnamon peels.

? Quillings: Broken pieces and splits of all grades of cinnamon quills.

Cinnamon butterfly: Chilasa clytia clytia : Papilionidae

Larvae defoliate plants. The larvae are pests on many crop plants and weeds and are common in the plains. The larvae are jet black at hatching. They develop a series of broad white patches. The adult is a common butterfly rich velvety brown, and spotted with white dots. The hind wings have arrow shaped streaks and crescent shaped spots.

English name : Cinnamon
Botanical name : Cinnamomum verum
Family : Lauraceae
Chromosome number : 2n = 24
Centre of origin : Sri Lanka
Cinnamon of the commerce is the dried inner bark of Cinnamomum verum Presl. (Syn. C. zeylanicum Bheme), It is also referred to as sweet wood, true cinnamon, or Ceylon cinnamon. It has been valued for centuries in the orient and is one of India’s oldest known tree spices. Cinnamon is renowned for its aromatic bark and leaves. The bark has a sweet, pleasant taste. It contains moisture (9.9%), protein (4.6%), fat (2.2%), fibre (20.3%), carbohydrates (59.5%), total ash (2.5%), calcium (1.6%), phosphorus (0.05%), iron (0.004%), sodium (0.01%), potassium (0.4%), and vitamins (B1 0.14 mg, B2 0.21 mg, C 39.8 mg, A 175 IU, niacin 1.9 mg), with a caloric value of 355/100g. The oil extracted from the bark is light yellow when freshly distilled, turning reddish upon storage, and is primarily composed of cinnamic aldehyde (60-75%) and eugenol (10%). The leaf oil has a slight camphor scent similar to clove oil, owing to the presence of 70-95% eugenol. Cinnamon is widely used as a spice or condiment in small pieces or as powder.

Introduction
The development of the domestic phenotype mirrors the domestication process. Are certain behavioral patterns typically lost when animal are domesticated? Why do domesticated animals exhibit some behaviors more frequently than their wild counterparts? Darwin (1868) believed that in captivity biological traits are lost through disuse. Hemmer (1990) proposed that domestic animals have experienced a kind of regressive evolution, in which their behavior is less influence by environmental stimuli than that of their wild counterparts. The Earth’s rotation around its axis influences our physiology and behaviour. Animal species that are compelled to be active continuously typically exhibit poor performance, health, and survival. However, we examine the evidence of animals displaying extended periods of activity with weakened or nonexistent circadian rhythms and no observable
negative consequences. Available reports suggested that there is a greater prevalence of around-the-clock and ultradian activity patterns than commonly acknowledged.
This is especially true among herbivores, animals in Polar Regions and constant physical environments, animals in specific life-history stages, and highly social animals. Various mechanisms exist, but research indicates that certain circadian pacemakers still function in animals that are active throughout the day and night. The prevalence of continuous activity in various animals and habitats, along with a wide range of underlying mechanisms, suggests a pattern of convergent evolution. The circadian system’s organizational principles and complexity allow for potential chrono-biological plasticity. There could be compromises between the advantages of consistent daily patterns and adaptability, which, due to reasons that are not well comprehended, result in the functional suitability of irregular daily patterns only in specific environments and for specific ways of life.

Insects, belonging to the phyllum-arthropoda, have an open circulatory system. An open circulatory system is that in which blood bathes the organs rather internal organs directly in the haemocoel, the coelom of the insects, which actually is not a true coelom. Almost entire haemocoel of insects is formed from the epineural sinus. The haemocoel is divided into the perineural sinus and perivisceral sinus by the dorsal and ventral diaphragm respectively. The characteristic of insects is the presence of dorsal vessel, which comprises of anterior aorta and a posterior heart and is the only conducting tube present in insects. The blood of insects mostly does not perform gaseous exchange, therefore it does not contain haemoglobin, and blood in insects is called the haemolymph, which is red-coloured. So in order to study the circulatory system of insects, the major focus must be on the dorsal vessel, which has been described as follows, along with its accessory structures.

Embryologically, the circulatory system is the first organ system to develop in the living animals. The form and function of this system vary considerably among the animals and are shaped by a variety of environmental factors i.e. phenotypic plasticity. Oxygen (O₂) acquisition and carbon dioxide (CO2) elimination occur simultaneously at the gill site of fish and shrimp. The gases are transported around the body by the circulation of the blood.

3.1. Circulatory System of Fishes

In fishes, heart is simply a muscular enlargement and modification of a part of the main blood vessels, lying between the hepatic capillaries and the gills. Fishes have a closed circulatory system with a heart that pumps blood in a single loop throughout the body. From the heart, blood goes to the gill capillary bed. Then via the systemic capillaries it returns back to the heart. Usually the gills account for approximately 30% of the total resistance to blood flow, the rest being in the visceral and somatic vasculature. Tuna requires more O₂ and the gill area is large with gill resistance up to 57%.

The circulatory system includes the heart, blood and lymph vessels, blood, lymph, cerebrospinal and tissue fluids. Circulation of blood in the body is important for the transport of nutrients to all parts of the body and for the transport of gases and waste products. In fact most of the functions of blood could not have been possible, if there were no circulation of blood.

In order to constantly circulate the blood to all parts of the body and back, the body needs the services of an efficient pump. The pump or heart is based on the ability of muscle to contract or shorten. The blood is carried in a system of elastic tubes of pipes (arteries, capillaries and veins). The circulation of blood in the domestic animals or mammals is referred to as closed circulation because the blood returns to the heart without leaving this system of tubes.

The heartbeat frequency or pulse rate is usually given as the number of heart beats per minute. The heart rate increases several times during exercise or thermal stress. The average pulse rate of various domestic animals is given in Table 1.

It may be defined as a chronic condition of the liver in which there is an increase of the connective tissue, a decrease in its size, and a degeneration of the parenchyma.

Alcohol is the most common cause of the cirrhosis of liver. Alcohol reaches the liver through blood stream. Other causes may include improperly prepared foods, poisonous substances, drugs like arsenic, phosphorus, the infectious diseases like syphilis and obstruction of the bile ducts.

Cirrhosis of the liver produced by alcohol abuse is known as portal cirrhosis where as cirrhosis caused by some obstruction such as a stone in the common duct or some narrowing of the bile duct leading from the liver to the small intestine is called as Biliary cirrhosis.

Introduction
The genetic diversity of crops has been subjected to considerable humandriven selection throughout time, in particular, is often limited by conventional plant breeding techniques. Under these conditions, crops with low yields and a high risk of disease and pest infestation may be produced. Thus, there’s a need to introduce a technique where solutions to all the problems can be addressed. CIS breeding opens us a wider range of opportunities for improving crops by enabling the deliberate incorporation of natural genetic differences from closely related plants. The word “CIS” in CIS breeding means “on the same side/same kingdom”. CIS breeding is an advanced method for genetic improvement in which genes from closely related plants are inserted into the desired crop. This method creates crop varieties that are greatly improved in terms of growth capacity, yield potential and pest and disease resistance. CIS breeding is a pioneering technology designed to integrate novel traits into established crop varieties without the introduction of foreign genetic material. Utilizing the similar gene combinations and the plant’s intrinsic genetic systems, it is a natural form of genetic improvement that improves traits including yield, drought resistance, disease resistance and nutritional qualities (Anjanppa and Gruissem, 2021). Comparing to conventional breeding where gene transfer can occur through random cross- breeding or mutagenesis and risk of unintended effects are high, in CIS breeding, one or few genes are transferred from related species as well as risk of unintended effects are also low. Some countries, regulate it as conventional breeding and other regulate it as GMO breeding.

The economics of migration has drawn attention of many economists and social scientists over the years. Decision making in migration has certain inherent complexities as it takes into account the characteristics of both areas of origin and areas of destinations. Similarly it involves the status of agricultural productivity and efficiency, extant of urban informal sector along with various other amenities available in the destination urban areas. The subject of rural-urban migration and its inter-linkage with urban informal market and agricultural productivity have received considerable attention in theoretical framework as well as in empirical research. Among these vast literatures, the study has reviewed some of them and made a synoptic assessment on these issues in general. Moreover an attempt has been made to review the existing literature on rural-urban migration in West Bengal.

2.1 Migration Decision Making

Migration decision can be two types: individual decision making and family decision making. These two sets of migration decision involve distinctly different sets of factors. Stark (1991) has rightly pointed out that “….the family, should not be treated as if it were an individual”. So there are differences between individual migration decision and family migration decision. Migration decision depends on a host of factors, some are economic, some are demographic and some are sociological in nature. However, individual and family migration decisions are determined by two distinctly different sets of factors.

This chapter describes about the review of relevant researches related to the present study. This also helps in developing conceptual framework and selecting proper methodology for the study. Although studies have been conducted on different aspects of conservation agriculture in past, but a few reviews were available on social ecology and perceptional change of the farmers in managing critical inputs to agriculture like water, nutrient and soil organic carbon, and ecosystem as a whole. So, reviews having a little indirect bearings are also included in this section. In accordance with the subject of the proposed study, the review of literature has been presented under the following sub-heads:

In any scientific investigation and research, a comprehensive review of literature is very essential. Its main function, apart from determining the work done before concerning the problem area i.e., area of investigation, to provide an insight into the methods and procedures and create a basis for interpretation of findings. As direct references of all the items are not in abundance, certain specific references along with some indirect references have been incorporated in this chapter for the purpose of meaningful use. In the present study, reviews of literature have been summarized in the following table

Citizen science has emerged as a powerful tool for monitoring and managing pests and diseases in agriculture. The concept of citizen science involves the active participation of citizens in scientific research, often through collaborative efforts with professional scientists. In the context of agriculture, citizen science offers a unique opportunity for farmers, gardeners, and other stakeholders to contribute to the monitoring and management of pests and diseases. Traditionally, pest and disease monitoring and management in agriculture have relied heavily on professional scientists and extension agents. While these experts play a critical role in providing guidance and support to farmers, they often face limitations in terms of resources, capacity, and geographical reach. Citizen science offers a way to bridge these gaps by leveraging the collective knowledge, expertise, and observational power of citizens (Fig.9.1).
In agriculture, citizen science can be applied in various ways to support pest and disease monitoring and management. For example, farmers and gardeners can be trained to recognize and report pests and diseases, providing valuable data on the distribution, prevalence, and impact of these organisms. This information can be used to inform management decisions, such as the application of pesticides or other control measures. Citizen science can also be used to support the development of integrated pest management (IPM) strategies, which aim to minimize the use of chemical pesticides and other harmful practices. By engaging citizens in the

The world of agriculture is undergoing a significant transformation, driven by advances in technology, data analytics, and citizen science. Smart farming, also known as precision agriculture, has emerged as a key driver of this transformation, enabling farmers to optimize crop yields, reduce waste, and promote sustainable agricultural practices. However, the full potential of smart farming can only be realized by integrating it with citizen science and agrometeorological advisories. Citizen science, which involves the participation of citizens in scientific research, has the potential to revolutionize the way we approach agriculture. By engaging citizens in the collection and analysis of data on weather conditions, soil health, and crop health, we can create a more inclusive and effective agricultural system. Agrometeorological advisories, which provide weather-based agricultural advice to farmers, can also be enhanced through the integration of citizen science data (Fig.10.1).
This book chapter explores the potential of bridging the gap between citizen science, smart farming, and agrometeorological advisories. We examine the current state of these fields, highlighting the opportunities and challenges associated with their integration. We also discuss the role of technology, including mobile apps and online platforms, in facilitating this integration and enhancing the effectiveness

Introduction
It was first introduced from Java by National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI), Lucknow in 1959. Later on Regional Research Laboratory (RRL) of CIMAP, Bangalore started research work from 1961. Presently, it is cultivated in Karnataka, Assam, Maharashtra, TN, WB, AP, Southern Gujarat and UP. Citronella oil is produced from two species, viz., Cymbopogon winterianus (Java type) and C. nardus (Ceylon type). About 300-350 tonnes of oil is produced annually in India, as against 7000 tonnes in the world.
Origin
It is reported to be originated from Borneo, Java and Sumatra
Uses
Despite production of synthetic isolates in large scale, there is still a widespread preference for natural citronella oil because of its unique olfactory and stable technical properties, which are vital in blending perfumes and compounding industrially important essences. The oil is mainly used in perfumery, soaps, detergents, industrial polishes, cleaning compounds, mosquito repellent products and other industrial products.