eChapters

Introduction

In India, about half of the geographical area is classified as degraded and as such, these areas are not able to produce services of any value (Khan, 1988). So, there is growing concern about the serious degradation in the quality of forests, besides the significant reduction in the tree cover in the country. To answer the prevailing conditions in the current era, one needs better nursery management to produce quality planting stock.

Forest nurseries are an essential part of forestry programmes, which cover traditional or intensively managed commercial forestry with introduced species. Field plantations should do with more productive species, but of improved quality and vigour. In order to encourage the forest tree culture, the use of quality planting stock and its subsequent management is very important.

Introduction

Biofertilisers are defined as preparations containing the living cells or latent cells of efficient strains of microorganisms that assist in the uptake of nutrients in crop plants by their interactions in the rhizosphere, when applied through seed or soil. They accelerate certain microbial processes in the soil, which augment the extent of the availability of nutrients in a form easily assimilated by plants. The increasing pressure of human and livestock population, indiscriminate extraction of forest produce, regular forest fires and mining activities have resulted in soil erosion, loss of fertility and moisture content and decreasing productivity of forests, which pose manifold problems for the restoration of the ecosystem.

Vermicompost is a nutrient-rich, microbiologically-active organic amendment that results from the interaction between earthworms and microorganisms during the breakdown of organic matter. It is a stabilised, finely divided peat-like material with a low C:N ratio, high porosity and high water-holding capacity, in which, most nutrients are present in forms that are readily taken up by plants. Earthworms act as mechanical blenders, and by fragmenting the organic matter, they modify its physical and chemical status by gradually reducing the ratio of C:N and increasing the surface area exposed to microorganisms, thus making it much more favourable for microbial activity and further decomposition.

Conifers are valuable natural resources of the country, which contribute substantially to its socio-economic development by providing goods and services to the people and industry. They generate considerable revenue and also play a major role in enhancing the quality of the environment by influencing the basic life support system. Unfortunately, however, they have been subjected to over- exploitation and biotic pressure in the last many years, thereby threatening the very existence of some species such as yew, chilgoza pine etc. The genus Pinus is, in fact, one of the largest and most divergent of the coniferous genera, comprising about 95 species and numerous other varieties and hybrids. They are distributed widely in the northern hemisphere, chiefly in the temperate and cold climates.

Introduction

The term ‘multipurpose trees’ covers all woody perennials used in agroforestry. Many authors have given many definitions of MPTs and MPTS. Burley and von Carlowitz (1984) reviewed many definitions and gave a synthesised definition which states that “multipurpose trees and shrubs (MPTS) are those which are deliberately grown and kept and managed for preferably more than one intended use, usually economically and/or ecologically motivated major products and / or services in any multipurpose land use systems, especially agroforestry systems”. The Forestry /Fuelwood Research Development Project (1992) precisely defined ‘multipurpose trees’ (MPTs) to mean tree species that are grown to provide more than one significant crop or function on the farm.

Apricot is an important fruit grown in the dry temperate and mild-hill regions of India. The fruit belongs to the family Rosaceae and genus Prunus. The original apricots are native to China, whereas wild apricot, which is known as ‘Zardalu’, is indigenous to India. Wild apricots are found at a low altitude of 1500 m and as high as 4000 m a s l. The cold hardy trees are hardier than peach and almond and can tolerate winter temperatures as low as -30ºC. They are drought- tolerant and can be grown in a variety of soils, but deep, fertile and well- drained loamy soil with a pH value of 6.0 to 6.8 is suitable for their growth and development. Apricots are found the world over at low altitudes of 150 m and as high as 4000 m a s l.

Introduction

Agroforestry denotes a sustainable land and crop management system that strives to increase yields on a continuing basis, by combining the production of woody forestry crops (including fruit and other tree crops) with arable or field crops and/or animals, simultaneously or sequentially, on the same unit of land and applying management practices that are compatible with the cultural practices of the local population. In Jammu and Kashmir, agroforestry systems have been practiced since centuries and passed from generation to generation. These systems were built on the foundation of protecting and planting trees. These systems in the past have made the hill people self- sufficient and well- nourished.

Introduction

Land is one of the most important resources on which human beings depend. The rate of soil degradation is continuously increasing with the advancement of science and technology, industrial expansion, urbanisation and population explosion. The most important cause of land degradation is the destruction of forests and other vegetation in sloping lands, riverbanks and other areas sensitive to damage (Pramod and Mohapatra, 2012). Anthropogenic activities like over grazing, wood cutting and burning have intensified land degradation, resulting in soil deterioration all over the world (Jin, 2002). Vegetation acts as a protective cover against the forces of wind and water, protecting the soil from being washed or blown away and preserving the physical and hydrographic balance of nature (Jain and Singh, 1998).

Introduction

Forest trees constitute ~82% of the continental biomass and harbour >50% of the terrestrial biodiversity. They also help to mitigate climate change, and provide a wide range of products that meet human needs, including wood, biomass, paper, fuel and biomaterials. Field-grown trees are routinely exposed to environmental stress. Current and predicted climatic conditions, such as prolonged drought, increased salinisation of soil and water and low temperature episodes pose a serious threat to forest productivity worldwide, affecting tree growth and survival. According to the reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, these stresses will increase in the near future because of global climate change.

Introduction

A forest is a complex ecosystem, predominantly composed of trees and shrubs, which usually form a closed canopy. They form a storehouse of a large variety of life forms such as plants, mammals, birds, insects, reptiles etc., besides being the most important habitat of the microorganisms and fungi, which do the important work of decomposing dead organic matter, thereby enriching the soil. Nearly 4 billion hectares of forests cover the earth’s surface, roughly 30% of its total land area. The forest ecosystem has two components- abiotic and biotic. Climate and soil type form a part of the non-living component and the living component includes plants, animals and other life forms. Plants include the trees, shrubs, climbers, grasses and herbs in the forest.

Soil-borne plant pathogens cause significant losses in the nursery plantation of agricultural, horticultural and forestry plantation stands. These pathogens can survive in the soil for many years through their resistant structures. Besides, the diseases caused by them are difficult to predict. Soil factors like soil type, texture, pH, moisture, temperature, level of organic matter and nutrient content influence the activity of soil-borne pathogens and diseases. In order to survive successfully, these pathogens compete with others for nutrition, space and other requirements. Understanding the dynamics of these pathogens and other microbial populations in the soil in relation to environmental conditions is essential for the successful management of these diseases.

Livelihood connotes the means, activities, entitlements and assets by which people make a living, attempt to meet their various consumption and economic necessities, cope with uncertainties and respond to new opportunities (De Haan and Zoomers, 2003).

Livelihood is a set of economic activities, involving self-employment and/ or wage- employment by using one’s endowments (human and material) to generate adequate resources (cash and non-cash) for meeting the requirements of self and the household.

Ideally, a livelihood should keep a person meaningfully and gainfully occupied in a sustainable manner with dignity

Livelihood, therefore, goes far beyond generating income. A livelihood is much more than employment.

The management of diseases and pests is a major challenge. Monoculture, excess use of fertilisers, high- yielding varieties, climate change etc have not only intensified plant diseases, but also given rise to new diseases or intensified those diseases which were earlier considered of minor importance. Although decades of research have given rise to certain promising organic and biological alternatives to chemical disease management, due to the lack of proper attention of researchers worldwide, the organic and biological disease management technologies are still not very popular.

Introduction

Soil has been advocated since the inception of nurseries as the storehouse of almost all the essential plant nutrients. Besides, it is treated as a living entity as it harbours diverse types of innumerable beneficial microorganisms, especially the beneficial genera of bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, algae etc. In 1885, the German botanist, Albert Frank, introduced the Greek word ‘mycorrhiza’, which literally means ‘fungus root’. These fungi form a beneficial symbiotic association with the roots of higher plants and perform the functions of root hair. This symbiotic association has been reported to promote plant growth and health by playing the role of biofertiliser and bioprotectant, respectively.

Introduction

Data Analysis is an approach to analyse data sets to summarise their main characteristics and extract valid information. The importance of hypothesis is generally recognised more in the studies which aim to make predictions about some outcome. As it is not possible to work on the whole population, each group is represented only by a sample of observations and if another sample is drawn, the numerical values would change. This variation between different samples drawn from the same population cannot be eliminated or reduced fully. One is supposed to draw inferences in the presence of the sampling f luctuations. Statistical tools and techniques are applied to check whether the observed differences are real significant differences or non- significant ones.

Veterinarian’s primary responsibility towards patients and their owners is to establish a correct diagnosis as it is a pre-requisite for rational, effective, eco-friendly and cheap treatment. Diagnosis of a disease is the crux of health problems. An accurate and prompt diagnosis helps in deciding effective treatment options, whereas incorrect and delayed diagnosis often leads to failure in disease outcome.

Diagnosis

The word “diagnosis” is derived from the Greek word “gnosis” that means knowledge. The diagnosis is not only the identification of the disease but also of disease process correlating with clinical manifestations with an understanding of disease etiology and its influence on the structure and function of the body. In fact making diagnosis is itself a process of ascertaining the nature of the disease or disorder from its signs and symptoms differentiating it from similar looking conditions.

Centesis is a surgical puncture or perforation into body cavity or structure usually done to aspirate fluid, air or tissue. The medical purpose of puncturing body cavities is not only to obtain fluid sample for diagnostic purpose but also to remove excessive fluid for therapeutic purpose for alleviating the respiratory distress owing to excessive fluid accumulation in peritoneal cavity, pleural cavity or pericardial sac. This procedure is usually done to get fluid from abdominal cavity, thoracic cavity, pericardial sac or joint capsule and is aptly known as abdominocentesis, thoracentesis, pericardiocentesis or arthrocentesis respectively.

Catheterization is done for both diagnostic as well as therapeutic purpose. As a diagnostic technique it is employed to collect urine samples, prostatic wash and suction biopsy. As a therapeutic technique it is used for the treatment of urine retention, obstruction and for monitoring urine output. Pneumocystography is a contrast radiography. It is being employed to distinguish the urinary bladder from other organs and to visualize the details of the bladder.

Catheterization

An appropriate catheter needs to be selected as per the requirement (purpose of catheterization and duration of catheterization). A soft, silicone flexible catheter is appropriate for indwelling purpose. Whereas a rigid catheter is more desirable to unblock a small calculi and collecting samples for diagnostic purpose. Small size catheters are best in order to minimize urethral trauma.

It is an easy, non-invasive, bed side technique for continuous monitoring the saturation of oxygen bound to hemoglobin (SpO2). The technique was invented by Dr. Takuo Aoyagi in 1974 to measure oxygen saturation in the blood. During recent years it has shown great utility in patient care. The oxygen saturation of hemoglobin provides a measure of cardio-respiratory functioning. Pulse oximeters generally used in humans are not appropriate for the use in dogs and cats as these are designed to apply on fingers and programmed with the oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve for humans.

Indications

Pulse oximetry is an important standard technique of patient care in cases of heart failure, respiratory failure, multiple organ failure, critical care, emergency, accident and during anesthesia.

Electrocardiography-A noninvasive Technique

Electrocardiography is a non-invasive diagnostic technique routinely used to examine the electrical activity of the heart in health and diseases. It is an important tool for the clinical evaluation of the heart. The technique provides important information regarding heart rate, heart rhythm, impulse formation and its conduction. Heart size can also be assessed to some extent in humans and dogs. The process of electrocardiography leads to generation of an electrocardiogram as a consequence of depolarization and repolarization of heart muscle cells during each heartbeat.

Almost all imaging techniques employed in human medicine are being followed in canine medicine but radiography and ultrasonography ( abdominal and cardiac) are the most commonly used clinical diagnostic techniques. Computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and nuclear techniques are also being used in the teaching establishments.

Radiography

Use of radiography (Figure 42) as a diagnostic technique is wide spread in canine and feline medicine across the world. It is considered the first step in evaluating the skeleton, thorax and abdomen. For evaluating the abdomen, radiography is considered as complimentary to sonography. Canine practice is more like pediatrics requiring assistant to control the patients (dog sand cats). No anesthesia or sedation is generally required for radiography. But if the patient has painful lesion such as fracture or luxation, suitable anesthesia / sedation should be used for making the animal cooperative during radiography for better visualization of the lesions.

Last few decades have witnessed an increasing number of pets attending clinics/hospitals for cardiac care because of changed life style of owners as well as pets, more awareness of the owners and an increase in number of veterinary medical specialist with better diagnostic facilities. Cardiac failure and cardiac arrest are the two important outcome of cardiac diseases with variable treatment result. Heart functioning is affected not only in primary diseases of heart but also in diseases of organs other than the heart. Without correct diagnosis of cardiac abnormalities, treatment may be futile with a fatal outcome. Nowadays diagnosis of cardiac abnormalities is facilitated with the aid of modern diagnostic technology.

The prevalence of skin diseases in dogs is high throughout the world. Skin diseases are one of the main clinical complaint with which dogs and cats are presented at clinics. Skin diseases are numerous and have wide range of underlying etiology ranging from non-specific cause, infections (bacterial, viral, fungal. yeast), hormonal, nutritional to immunological causes. Most of the skin diseases are clinically manifested with focal or diffuse alopecia, itching, papules, pustules, erythema, scaling, scabs, lumps, unpleasant smell, rashes, urticarial plaques, dandruff, hot spots or excessive licking (Figure62) making the straight forward diagnosis a difficult task especially in dogs and cats with chronic dermatological disease.

Otology is the branch of medicine concerned with the study of the ear and its diseases. Ear diseases in canines have multiple etiology varying from allergies (food or environmental), ectoparasites, infections (bacteria, malassazia, fungus), endocrine disorders, immunological disorders (autoimmune diseases), foreign material, neoplasms to keratinization disorders. For rational management, correct diagnosis is a pre-requisite. Diagnostic techniques in otology include history, clinical examination including ear canal palpation and visual inspection of ears, imaging (otoscopy, radiography, CT scan, MRI, and ultrasonography) and cytological evaluation of otic contents/ discharge.

Diseases of gastro-intestinal tract are very common in dogs and cats. Gastro intestinal tract starts from mouth to anus. The first step in making diagnosis of gastro-intestinal disease is to localize the problem. Whether it is buccal cavity, esophagus, stomach, or intestines. Cursory history for seemingly simple complaint like vomiting, anorexia or loose feces may be unrewarding because gastrointestinal diseases may be primary (concerning with only gastro intestinal tract and its functions) or secondary (due to underlying disease/ disorder of organs other than gastro-intestinal tract). Therefore, for ascertaining the cause of gastrointestinal signs (anorexia, nausea, vomiting, regurgitation, constipation, loose feces, bloody feces), a thorough examination of all body systems is more logical. As with other body systems, a comprehensive systematic approach is needed for diagnosing diseases of gastro-intestinal tract also.

The term “Hepatology” is derived from the Greek words “hepatikos” and “logia” meaning liver and study respectively. It is the branch of medicine dealing with the study of structure, function, diseases and abnormalities of the liver, gall bladder, and biliary tree. Liver/hepatic diseases in companion pets vary from multifactorial hepatitis (acute and chronic), cirrhosis, portosystemic shunt, copper storage disease, hepatic lipidosis, and hepatic neoplasm to fulminant hepatic failure. The etiology of liver diseases also varies from infection, auto-immune, metabolic to genetic factors. The hepatic disorders are quite common in canines and felines. Moreover, the diagnosis of liver malfunctioning is loosely given in pet practice without any supportive evidence.

Nephrology

Nephritis and renal calculi are the two major problems leading to renal failure in canine and feline nephrology. Chronic renal failure may occur at any age but it is more common in geriatric dogs. Congenital renal diseases may also lead to renal failure at any age. Chronic renal disease or chronic renal failure is a progressive deteriorating condition as compensatory mechanism (glomerular hypertension and hyper filtration) further deteriorate the condition. Hence chronic renal disease remains lifelong. For quality life, an early diagnosis of renal failure is very important. The following techniques are used to diagnose chronic renal failure.

Clinical diagnostic techniques in neurology are generally employed to confirm the existence of neurological disorder and also to localize the lesion.

Equipment/Instruments for Neurological Examination

 •            Reflex hammer.

 •            Cotton tip applicator.

 •            Pen torch light or transilluminator.

 •            Cotton balls.

 •            Haemostats.

 •            Lens.

Anesthesia/ Sedative

• Generally no anesthetic/ sedative is needed for neurological examination.

Place of Neurological Examination

Eye is a very sensitive, delicate and unique organ. Its function may be affected with wide range of etiologies ranging from trauma, local and systemic infections, metabolic diseases to vision defects warranting an early and accurate diagnosis employing complete history, detailed ocular examination and or specialized diagnostic techniques such as Schirmer Tear Test (STT), Fluorescence Test, Ophthalmoscopy, Tonometry, Pachymetry, Retinoscopy and Gonioscopy etc.

Instruments for Ophthalmic Examination

•             Finn off Transilluminator

 •            Pen torch

 •            Direct Ophthalmoscope

 •            Indirect fundoscopic lens (2.2 diopter lens)

 •            Schirmer tear test strips

 •            Fluorescein strips

 •            Tonometer

Introduction

Fungicides continue to be crucial instruments to protect yield and quality since plant diseases can result in considerable crop losses both before and after harvest. In the fight against plant pathogen-caused crop diseases, chemicals are crucial. Chemicals occur in a variety of forms, such as those that kill bacteria, fungus, and nematodes (bactericides, fungicides, and nematicides). These substances need to be handled carefully while battling plant diseases. Significant pre- and post-harvest crop losses can be brought on by fungal infections during transportation and storage. After host resistance, fungicides are regarded as the second line of defence in the struggle against plant diseases.

Fungicides have been used to manage plant diseases since ancient times. The use of sulphur as a purifying agent is documented in the Old Testament, Homeric poems published about the eighth century B.C., Vedic literature (1500-500 B.C.), Buddhist literature, Surpala’s Vrksayurveda (800 A.D.), and other texts. Chemicals’ importance as fungicides was recognised only when fungus were clearly identified as a cause of plant diseases.

Over the previous two centuries, a wealth of information on fungicides has collected, owing primarily to advances in fungicidal chemical expertise. Aside from chemical control, other alternative approaches of disease control have earned appropriate respect throughout this period. However, in today’s modern agricultural system, fungicides play an important role in disease management and are useful in increasing crop output by reducing the attack of hazardous plant pathogens.

What are Pesticides?

Pesticides are essential tools for controlling harmful and invasive pests in agriculture, forestry, and the landscape. Pesticides are any substances used to prevent, eliminate, repel, attract, or diminish pest organisms. Pesticides that are well-known include insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, and rodenticides. Growth regulators, plant defoliants, surface disinfectants, and several swimming pool chemicals are among the others. Insecticides include pesticides (effective against insects), herbicides (effective against certain plants), rodenticides (effective against rats), bactericides (effective against bacteria), fungicides (effective against fungi) and larvicides (effective against larvae).

The effects of weeds, pests, and diseases result in the loss of between 20 40% of the world’s potential agricultural yield each year. By reducing crop loss from pest infestations, the use of pesticides can boost agricultural output by 25–50%. Only 25 to 30 percent of the area that is now being grown is protected by pesticides. Because domestic pesticide use is among the lowest in the world, there is significant room for expansion. India uses 0.6 kilogramme of pesticides per hectare compared to the global average of 3 kg per hectare. The use of crop protection products must be enhanced. There are now 1175 compounds accessible in the world, however only roughly 292 of them are registered in India.

Antipathogen Chemicals

Anti-pathogen chemicals are chemical substances that serve to slow the activity of pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, and nematodes.

Purpose of Using Chemicals in Plant Disease Management

The goal of application of chemicals in plant disease control are

• To form a toxic barrier between the pathogen and the host surface or tissue.

• To eliminate the pathogen from a specific place on the host, such as seed, leaves, roots, and so on.

Role of Chemicals’ in Plant Disease Management

• Reducing inoculum density or removing inoculum from the source of growth, multiplication, and survival.

• Pathogen inactivation or annihilation when it lands on the treated surface.

• Treatment of the diseased plant.

Pesticide Authorities

Central Insecticides Board and Registration Committee

In India, the central pesticide board and registration committee oversee the import, production, sale, transportation, distribution, and use of insecticides. Pesticides in India are regulated by the following two government organisations Central Insecticides Board and Registration Committee CIBRC and Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI ).

Central Insecticide Board (CIB)

• The Central Insecticides Board advises the central and state governments on technical issues arising from the administration of this act, as well as carrying out the other tasks given to it by or under this act.

What is Fungicide?

The term fungicide is derived from two Latin words, fungus and caedo. The word ‘caedo’ literally means ‘to kill.’ As a result, a fungicide is any agent or chemical that has the power to kill the fungus. Physical agents such as ultraviolet light and heat should also be called fungicides, according to this definition. However, in ordinary use, the term exclusively refers to chemicals. As a result, fungicide is a chemical that can kill fungi.

What is Fungistat?

Certain chemicals do not kill fungal infections. However, they only temporarily stop the fungus’s growth. Fungistat refers to these compounds, while fungistatis refers to the phenomena of temporarily inhibiting fungal growth.

What is Antisporulent?

Introduction

The compounds produced one kind of microbe that are poisonous to another type of microbes are known as antibiotics. Actinomycetous bacteria and certain fungi are the primary producers of antibiotics. Antibiotics have highly complicated chemical makeups and formulations, which are frequently unknown. To combat plant diseases, however, antibiotics were first introduced in 1950. Typically, plants absorb and then move systemically internal antibiotics used for managing plant diseases. Usually, they operate on the host or the pathogen directly or after going through transformation to control plant diseases. In addition to acting as eradicators, they also serve as protectors and offer resistance to the invasion of viruses, and their impact lasts for a while.

Introduction

• Nematicides are chemically synthesized products that kill or adversely affect nematodes.

• These products can have a nematicidal or nemastatic effect on nematodes.

• Nematicidal compounds are highly toxic and kill exposed nematodes.

• Nemastatic compounds do not kill nematodes but interfere with the migration of nematodes towards the roots of the host plant or delay nematode hatching.

• Many nematicides are broad spectrum, volatile, soil fumigant.

• They are not only active against nematodes, but also insects, fungi, bacteria, weed seeds and almost everything else that lives on the ground.

Antiviral Factor (AVF)

When an incompatible virus enters the host, resistance to viral diseases is seen. A number of substances, including polyacrylic acid, aspirin, salicylic acid, benzoic acid, and other growth regulators, including Indole acetic acid (IAA), 2, 4-D, Benzyl amino-in (3P), and ethylene, cause resistance to viral diseases. For each of these situations, certain plant compounds have also been identified to cause the development of novel proteins in plant tissues. They are referred to as “antiviral factors.” Healthy plants lack these antiviral components. They are only created once the host has been infected by the virus. These post-infectional substances resemble “phytoalexins.”

Botanicals

Botanicals play a significant role in the development of a disease management approach that is both ecologically sound and acceptable to the environment. Plant products have been found to have fungicidal, bactericidal, and antiviral properties. It is known that 346 plant species have fungicidal, 92 have bactericidal, and 90 have antiviral properties. This proves conclusively that the plant kingdom is home to a sizable stockpile of chemicals that can control a range of plant diseases. Because many of them employ many modes of action and plant compounds are safer for species other than the targeted, there is also less chance of resistance developing.Plants and plant products known as botanicals are safer for protecting plants against pathogens.

Pesticides are any chemical or mixture intended for use as a plant regulator, defoliant, or desiccant as well as any substance or mixture meant for preventing, getting rid of, repelling, or controlling pests. Agricultural pests include insects, weeds, fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, rodents, and mollusks. The term pesticide, which refers to these pests and cide, which meaning “to kill.” Insecticides, fungicides, bactericides, weed killers, molluscicides, rodenticides, nematicides, and other types of pesticides can be classed as pesticides. Every manufacturer of pesticides as well as companies with CIB & RC registration must provide all scientific data on bio-ecacy, toxicity, residues, and safe waiting periods that has been obtained via laboratory research.

Formulation Technology

An essential first step in any pesticide-based pest management procedure is choosing the right formulation. It’s a crucial managerial choice that affects the bottom line, client happiness, worker safety, and environmental quality. Knowing the characteristics of different formulations is important for both the supervisor and the applicator. The applicator is responsible for both application and mixing. Applicators come into direct touch with the substance, both diluted and concentrated. A basic, personal concern for one’s health and the health of others necessitates understanding the formulation’s safety features.

Mode of Action of Fungicides

Most fungicides function outside of the host, which is referred to as “protection.” A fungicide that acts outside of the host is referred to as a “protectant fungicide.” This category includes the majority of older fungicides applied on leaves and fruit. “Therapy” refers to chemical action within the host. Fungicides, for example, are locally systemic and enter the plant at the point of deposition. Several triazole fungicides have several days of therapeutic action against wheat leaf rust and also inhibit the development of viable spores (spores that can grow).

The majority of protectant fungicides are relatively stable on their own. They are generally insoluble in water and resist removal or chemical alteration by water, but they must be toxic to fungus.

Appropriate selection of fungicides and application at appropriate doses and times are of great importance in the management of crop diseases. A basic requirement of the application method is to get the fungicide to a location where the active ingredient prevents fungal damage to the plant. The fungicidal application varies according to the nature of the host part diseased and nature of survival and spread of the pathogen. The method which are commonly adopted in the application of the fungicides are discussed.

1. Foliar or vegetative application

2. Soil application

3. Seed treatment

Chemotherapy is the procedure of treating a sick or infected plant using chemicals to kill the fungus. Chemotherapy has proven successful in very few circumstances. For example, plants have been treated with antibiotics to minimise the severity of “lethal yellowing” of palm trees caused by Phytoplasma and the decline of pears. Likewise, fungicides have been used to elm trees to mitigate the effects of Ophiostoma ulmi and O? neo-ulmi, the causative agents of Dutch elm disease. The chemotherapy drugs must, however, always be given repeatedly. Systemic fungicides like sterol biosynthesis inhibitors (SBIS), which partially penetrate plant tissues, eradicate recent infestations.

Chemotherapeutic fungicides are a class of systemic fungicides that have some plant mobility. They are capable of eliminating diseases even in parts of the plant that were not exposed to the chemicals. Unfortunately, pathogens develop resistance to systemic fungicides because they are site-specific

A. Purchase

 • Avoid purchasing leaky containers, loose, unsealed, or broke bags.

 • Never purchase fungicide without proper/approved labels.

 • Purchase only what you need for a single application within the specified range, such as 100, 250, 500, or 1000 g/ml.

B. Storage

 • Only keep fungicide in original containers with unbroken seals.

 • Never transfer fungicide to another container.

 • Never store with food or feed.

 • Keep children and livestock out of reach.

 • Avoid exposing the fungicide to sunshine or moisture.

• Do not store herbicides alongside fungicides.

 • Avoid storing fungicide on your property.

Pesticide poisoning occurs when a pesticide penetrates the body and disrupts its essential systems. Symptoms can appear anywhere from a half hour to 24 hours following exposure. The common symptoms and indicators of pesticide poisoning are:

Initial symptoms may include

First Aid

First aid is the preliminary care of a person who has been exposed to pesticides before getting proper medical attention. The initial step is to remove the person from the source of the exposure by removing pesticide from their skin, removing contaminated clothing, or transporting them to fresh air. Be careful not to contaminate oneself throughout this process.

Pesticide on the Skin

• Remove any contaminated clothes.

 • Drench clothing and skin with plenty of water.

• Clean hair and skin with soap and water.

• Dry the victim and wrap them in clean clothes.

• Prevent the victim from being chilly or overheated.

Combining two or more pesticides in a tank saves time and labour while also lowering equipment and application costs. However, the effectiveness of one or more products may change in some circumstances. Two or more pesticides are compatible if they may be mixed and sprayed together without changing the efficacy, physical and chemical qualities of the mixture, or harming unwanted application locations. Chemicals are considered incompatible when issues arise when more than one product are mixed..

Incompatibility

Incompatibility occurs when a pesticide is unable to be adequately blended to generate a homogenous solution or suspension. Flakes, crystals, or greasy masses, as well as significant separation, are not acceptable. Incompatible mixes like this can clog application equipment and hinder the even distribution of the active ingredient in the spray tank. This inhibits pesticides from being applied properly.

Fungicides are only allowed after years of intensive testing for effectiveness against a variety of plant plant. When a disease is stated on the label of a fungicide, it can be presumed that the active ingredient inhibits pathogen growth and limits the occurrence and spread of disease within acceptable levels of control. Fungicides do not always perform as predicted in practice. Not because the active ingredient is useless, but because of other factors that influence its performance. Consider everything from light and temperature to humidity and pH, and remember that all of these variables affect the active ingredients. Find information on these and other topics that can help you succeed in disease control below.

1. Identification: The most crucial first step towards successful disease control is correctly recognising the condition. Failure to diagnose disease can lead to misplaced or inappropriately scheduled controls.

The process for discovering new fungicides has evolved throughout time. Over the past 20 years, a number of novel fungicides with various chemical activity have been created, after the age of site-specific systemic fungicides and multisite broad-spectrum fungicides. Compared to earlier chemicals, they are utilised at considerably lower dosages, making them more ecologically friendly.The most significant of them is called strobilurin (QoI), which is derived from the wild Strobilurus tenacellus fungus. The oxazolidinediones (phaoxadone), phenoxyquinolines (quinoxifene), anilinopyrimidines (cyprodinil, pyrimethanil), and valinamide (iprovalicarb, benchocarb), manderamide (mandipropamide), and phenylpyrrole (fenpicroyl, fludioxonil) are other significant fungicides that were introduced in the last ten years to control a variety of diseases. These substances have distinct molecular structures and modes of action.