eChapters

1. Introduction

The aquaculture industry is a rapidly expanding domain of food production worldwide. With the exponential growth of the human population, there has been a corresponding rise in the demand for natural resources. Therefore, all technologies aim to maximize food production. The widespread expansion of aquaculture, especially in coastal areas, increases the load of biomass in the culture water and presents enduring ecological hazards. (Piedrahita 2003; Sharifinia et al., 2018, 2019).

The primary challenge confronted by aquaculturists as a result of rapid intensification of the system is the quality of water. Consequently, there has been a surge in eco-friendly management and cultivation practices. Additionally, the development of aquaculture is limited by high land costs and its heavy reliance on fish oil and fish meal (Browdy et al., 2001; De Schryver 2008). Nevertheless, the sector continues to exhibit limited productivity, which is primarily attributed to inadequate quality inputs and substandard culture technologies. With substantial operating and maintenance expenses, the acceptance of recirculating systems among farmers, specifically in developing nations, is limited. Hence, there is a growing requirement for an affordable, environmentally friendly technology that is embraced by farmers and can be widely implemented (Ahmad et al., 2017; Karimanzira et al., 2017). There is growing interest in enclosed aquaculture systems, primarily driven by the biosecurity, environmental, and marketing benefits they offer compared to traditional, semi-intensive, and extensive systems (Ray, 2012).

1. Introduction

By 2030, sustainable development must be achieved through cross-sector cooperation, creativity and comprehensive initiatives. Aquaculture has contributed to SDGs; however, its contribution depends on the effectiveness of local and international governance (Farmery et al., 2020). Because it includes all aquatic ecosystems, it is one of the global food-producing industries that does so at one of the fastest rates (Mugimba et al., 2021), accounting for approximately half (46%) of the total global fish production (FAO, 2020). Understanding the various environmental, social, and economic aspects of aquaculture offers a more specialized method for handling opportunities and challenges for future development (Troell et al., 2023). Global seafood consumption has risen from 9.0 kg in 1961 to 20.2 kg in 2020, accounting for over 17% of the world's intake of animal proteins (FAO 2022). Indeed, there are considerable regional differences in the production potential and value of the aquaculture sector (Naylor et al., 2021). Over the past 20 years, China, India, Indonesia, Vietnam, Bangladesh, and Egypt have been the major producing countries that have consolidated their share of regional or global production (FAO 2020). Moreover, developing nations account for more than 95% of global aquaculture production, growing at an average annual rate of 6.13 percent (FAO, 2020). As the name aquaculture indicates, it involves farming various aquatic organisms, ranging from the production of unicellular Chlorella algae within indoor bioreactors (Gors et al., 2010) for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) production in outdoor floating net cages (FAO, 2019). The aquaculture production of fish is the largest, accounting for over half (53.4 million tonnes) of all farmed aquatic species. Aquatic plants (31.8 million tonnes), mollusks (17.4 million tonnes), crustaceans (8.4 million tonnes), amphibians and reptiles (471,784 tons), and miscellaneous invertebrate animals (422,124 tons) are among the other important aquatic species farmed (Tacon 2019). Although aquaculture is a fast-expanding industry that provides billions of people with food and is a means of subsistence worldwide, several obstacles could prevent this sector's expansion and sustainability on a global scale.

1. Introduction

With the advancement of science and technology, new technologies have been developed to advance molecular work to a great extent. Thousands of DNA molecules can be simultaneously sequenced at one time using next-generation sequencing (NGS). Next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies act as revolutionary tools for various implementations and can produce hundreds of gigabases of sequence data within a single experiment. A wide variety of modern sequencing technologies go by the name of "high-throughput sequencing." In recent years, this technology has advanced as a de facto tool for the study of genomics and epigenomics. Nucleotides can be located using this technique anywhere in the genome or in groups of specific DNA or RNA regions. An NGS plot is a useful tool for bridging the gap between enormous datasets and genomic information in this era of massive sequencing data. Resequencing of genomic DNA will undoubtedly be the primary application of NGS in clinical settings. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) offers an intricate representation of single nucleotide variations (SNV), insertions and deletions (indels), complex structural alterations, and changes in copy number, all of which are attainable through a single analysis. Extensive genetic information can be obtained and used after complete genome sequencing, which reveals a large amount of genetic data. However, a significant portion contains either novel information or data whose clinical significance has not yet been established. WGS is the most comprehensive genetic analysis of an individual or cancer genome.

1. Introduction

Modern medicine relies heavily on biomaterials and tissue engineering, which are a broad category of materials designed to interact with biological systems in a therapeutic or diagnostic capacity. These materials, which are frequently polymers, natural or synthetic, are made to have particular physical, chemical, and biological characteristics in order to satisfy the demands of a range of medical applications (Holzapfel et al., 2013; Ozdil & Aydin, 2014). These materials can be produced, modified and characterized in a number of ways, according to the particular needs of the application, including 3D printing, molding, and machining (Jandyal et al., 2022). Biomaterials are extensively studied for their applications in tissue engineering, which comprises the recent developments into studying the disease models, micro-scale bone repairing, wound healing and other applications (Purnama et al., 2010). Biomaterial degradation and biocompatibility must be taken into account when developing implants or medical devices since the material's characteristics are tunable according the external or internal parameters. In order to produce biomaterials for use in healthcare applications, cooperation between specialists in biology, medicine, and materials science is needed, the upcoming advances in bioprinting, artificial graft and usage of artificial intelligence might give us an insight towards development in disease regression (Holzapfel et al., 2013; Khan et al., 2015).

The majority of the protein found in the food supply worldwide comes from animal or grain sources, which together account for around half of the total. First of all, fish and crustaceans are significant and excellent providers of amino acids, a form of protein that is essential to nutrition and is only present in trace amounts in cereals and grains. It turns out that these matters for global nutrition and that some low-income, food-deficient nations really benefit from it. Furthermore, fisheries are significant local sources of food, commerce, and revenue in many coastal developing and developed countries. This has prompted researchers and biotechnologists to look at the identification, use, and extraction of these biomaterials in healthcare settings (Raghavendra et al., 2015). The varied fish-derived biomaterials have a variety of uses, including as in tissue engineering, medication delivery, and wound healing, which has opened up new avenues for medical science to make scientific discoveries (Bhat & Kumar, 2013).

1. Introduction

Aquaculture has played a sustaining role in global food systems by providing expanded food production and livelihood benefits with relatively minimal environmental harm. (Igwegbe et al., 2021). To emphasize the importance of the aquaculture sector, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2020) stated that, global aquaculture production increased by 5.27%, hitting a record-breaking productivity value of 114.5 million tonnes between 1990 and 2018 (Pauly and Zeller 2017). Aquaculture has profited from developments in science and technology in nearly every aspect such as a greater diversity of species, nutritional regimes, production techniques, organizational frameworks, and marketing compared to other agricultural industries (FAO 2020). As an illustration, enhanced reproductive technologies have made it possible for individuals to achieve closed life cycles of aquaculture species, resulting in the diversification of species in the aquaculture sector (Weber and Lee 2014). The utilization of live feeds in hatcheries, such as microalgae, artemia, rotifers, brine shrimp, and various copepods, has eliminated the obstacle in breeding a variety of marine organisms (Conceição et al., 2010).

Approximately 60 varieties of fish species have shown significant improvements in features of economic value through selective breeding assisted by quantitative genetics (Zuma 2022). River shrimps (Levy et al., 2017), Yellow catfish (Roskoski et al., 1975), and mono-sex tilapias (Mair et al., 1997) all have been produced owing to sex reversal technology and DNA markers linked to sex determination. The risk of inbreeding has decreased due to intrafamily screening being made possible by molecular parentage assignment (Xu et al., 2020). Selection for characteristics, particularly are governed by single genes and a small number of significant genes (Fuji et al., 2007; Houston et al., 2008) has been made possible by QTL (quantitative trait locus mapping) and marker-assisted selection (MAS) (Yue 2014). Enhanced feed formulations dependent on the dietary needs for every fish species have enhanced feed conversion rate (FCR) and decreased feed cost (Tacon and Metian 2015). Innovations for disease control (Kelly and Renukdas 2020) have minimized the prevalence of ailments in aquaculture.

Subject: Biostatistics and computer application (UNIT-I)

Write true (T) or false (F)

Q1. Write true (T) or false (F)

1. The mean and mode are always equal in case of normal distribution.

2. Pie diagram is circular diagram.

3. Skewness is the measure of asymmetry of distribution.

4. Mean sum of squares are the variances.

5. Coefficient of variation may be utilized for comparing two data of different unit.

6. Goodness fit is tested by t-test.

7. Variance is a measure of central tendency.

8. CRD can be use where experimental material is heterogenous.

9. Frequency polygon is made by joining the middle points of the top of each rectangle of histogram.

• In statistics, best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) is used in linear mixed models for the estimation of random effects. BLUP was derived by Charles Roy Henderson in 1950 but the term “best linear unbiased predictor” (or “prediction”) seems not to have been used until 1962 (Henderson, 1975, 1985).

• “Best linear unbiased predictions” (BLUPs) of random effects are similar to best linear unbiased estimates (BLUEs) of fixed effects. The distinction arises because it is conventional to talk not about estimating fixed effects but rather about predicting random effects, but the two terms are otherwise equivalent.

BLUE and BLUP are both acronyms used in statistics

• BLUE stands for Best Linear Unbiased Estimates and refers to the solutions (or estimates) associated with the fixed effects of a model.

• BLUP stands for Best Linear Unbiased Predictions and refers to the solutions (but identified as predictions) associated with the random effects of a model.

• Both BLUEs and BLUPs are linear functions of the data and have the lowest variance.

• The expected value of a mean estimate for an individual equals its true value for BLUEs.

• BLUPs are similar to BLUEs, but it is conventional to talk about estimating fixed effects but predicting random effects.

• BLUP is the standard selection method in animal breeding where the breeding values of sires are estimated based on progeny performance to select superior genotypes and to breed superior families.

What is Least Square Method?

The Least Squares Method is used to derive a generalized linear equation between two variables, one of which is independent and the other dependent on the former. The value of the independent variable is represented as the x-coordinate and that of the dependent variable is represented as the y-coordinate in a two-dimensional cartesian coordinate system. Initially, known values are marked on a plot. The plot obtained at this point is called a scatter plot. Then, we try to represent all the marked points as a straight line or a linear equation. The equation of such a line is obtained with the help of the least squares method. This is done to get the value of the dependent variable for an independent variable for which the value was initially unknown. This helps us to fill in the missing points in a data table or forecast the data. The method is discussed in detail as follows. The least-squares method was officially discovered and published by Adrien-Marie Legendre (1805), though it is usually also co-credited to Carl Friedrich Gauss (1809), who contributed significant theoretical advances to the method.

Least Square Method Definition

The least-squares method can be defined as a statistical method that is used to find the equation of the line of best fit related to the given data. This method is called so as it aims at reducing the sum of squares of deviations (residual part) as much as possible. The line obtained from such a method is called a regression line.

Biological assay or bioassay

• A bioassay is an analytical method to determine the concentration or potency of a substance by its effect on living animals or plants (in vivo), or on living cells or tissues (in vitro).

• Bio-assays are thus a type of experiments with the object of comparing the efficacy of two or more substances, or preparations, like drugs, by using responses produced by them on suitable living organisms.

• The bio assay involves a stimulus applied to a subject and the response of the subject to the stimulus.

• When a stimulus is applied to a subject there may be a change in some characteristics of the subject. Such changes in the subject are known as responses.

• The response may be quantitative as in the case of weight or qualitative as in the case of mortality. The magnitude of response depends upon the dose.

• Normally, two preparations having a common effect are taken for assaying. One of the preparations is of known strength and is called the standard preparation and the other is of unknown strength and is called test preparation.

Important Definitions

• Sampling method or sampling technique is the process of studying the population by gathering information (on basis of samples) and analyzing that data.

• Population: The whole group we are interested in census.

• Census: A collection of data from the whole population

• Sample: A collection of data from part of the population

• Parameter Vs Statistics: Parameter is statistical measure pertaining to population whereas statistics is measure pertaining to sample.

• Estimate-Value of population parameter obtained from sample.

• Livestock census carried every 5 years (2019-20th livestock census)

Design of Experiment was first elaborated by R. A. Fisher (1935).

• Design of Experiment: Proper allotment of treatments to the available experimental units.

• Treatment: It is the factor whose effect is to be studied. Example: Application of drugs, feeds, conditions, methods, etc.

• Experimental units: The subjects or individuals upon which an experiment is conducted.

Example: Laboratory animals like mice, rat, monkeys, primates; livestock like cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, poultry; plants, a plot of land, etc.

Necessity of designing an experiment

1. To get maximum information from the available resources.

2. To know the effect of treatment on experimental units and to make comparison between treatments.

3. To know whether the difference between the effect of two treatments is significant or not.

4. A well designed experiment has a well defined method of statistical analysis of data.

5. To minimize error in the whole experimental procedure.

6. An ill designed experiment is not likely to give proper estimates of parameters and comparisons between treatments with desired precision even if the method of data analysis is very good.

7. The design of experiment is essential to get all the important treatment effects to be compared independently.

The F-test for the equality of two variances

Rationale

The two-sample t-test and the analysis of variance make the assumption of homoscedasticity, i.e. of equal variances in groups of data. The F-test, often called the variance ratio test, may be used to investigate the homoscedasticity of two data sets.

We have to make a decision whether or not the population variances are likely to be different. This means that we need a cut-off for the variance ratio; if the variance ratio exceeds this cut-off value, we will conclude that the variances are unequal.

We determine this cut-off value formally, under the null hypothesis that the two population variances are equal, by referring the ratio to the table of the F-distribution. The degrees of freedom are (n1 – 1) in the numerator (the larger variance) and (n2 – 1) in the denominator (the smaller variance), where n1 and n2 represent the two sample sizes.

For the required significance level in a two-tailed test, therefore, we must halve this tail area. So, for a two-tailed test at the 5% level of significance, we have to relate the test statistic to P = 0.025. For convenience, we give the upper percentage points corresponding to P = 0.025 and P = 0.005 (relating to two tailed P-values of 0.05 and 0.01, respectively) in separate tables.

We can categorize statistical theory into two general parts.

1. Firstly, there is descriptive statistics which uses the appropriate tools, typically tables, diagrams and/or numerical measures, to describe a data set and provide a summary of its distribution.

2. In addition, there is inferential statistics which is concerned with drawing conclusions about a population using information obtained from a representative sample selected from it.

(a) One aspect of statistical inference is the estimation of a population parameter by the appropriate sample statistic (e.g. the population mean by the sample mean).

(b) The second aspect of inferential statistics is hypothesis testing. In this case, we examine a hypothesis, framed in terms of the parameters in one or more populations.

Estimation is concerned with description whereas hypothesis testing is ultimately concerned with decision.

Basic concepts of hypothesis testing

Hypothesis testing is a process that is concerned with making conclusions about the population using the information obtained from its sample.

A probability distribution is a statistical function that describes all the possible values and likelihoods that a random variable can take within a given range. This range will be restricted between the minimum and maximum possible values.

The probability distribution shows how the set of all possible mutually exclusive events are distributed, and can be presented as an equation, a chart or a table.

A variable which can take different values with given probabilities is called a random variable.

There are numerous probability distributions which may be distinguished by whether the random variable is discrete, taking only a finite set of possible values, or continuous, taking an infinite set of possible values in a range of values.

A discrete random variable with only two possible values is called a binary variable, e.g. pregnant or not pregnant, diseased or healthy.

Probability distributions for discrete random variables The probability distribution for a discrete random variable y is the table, graph or formula that assigns the probability P(y) for each possible value of the variable y.

A. Definitions of probability

1. A probability relies on having an understanding of the theoretical model defining the set of all possible outcomes of a trial; we evaluate the probability solely on the basis of this model, without recourse to performing the experiment at all. It is often called an a priori probability. So, for example, we know that there are two equally likely outcomes when an unbiased coin is tossed: either a head or a tail. This is the model from which we can deduce that the probability of a defined event, obtaining a head, say, is 1/2 = 0.5.

2. The next approach to defining a probability, and the one commonly used in statistical inference, is to regard a probability as the proportion of times a particular outcome (the event) will occur in a very large number of ‘trials’ or ‘experiments’ performed under similar conditions.

The result of any one trial should be independent of the result of any other trial, so whether or not the event occurs in any one trial should not affect whether or not the event occurs in any other trial.

Correlation coefficient

We measure the degree of association between two variables by calculating Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient, usually just called the correlation coefficient.

It was developed by Karl Pearson from a related idea introduced by Francis Galton in the 1880s, and for which the mathematical formula was derived and published by Auguste Bravais in 1844. In 1896, Karl Pearson published his first rigorous treatment of correlation and regression in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London.

The linear correlation coefficient (sometimes called Pearson's Correlation Coefficient), commonly denoted, is a measure of the strength of the linear relationship between two variables.

• We say that we have perfect correlation if all the points lie on the line; in this case, the value of the correlation coefficient takes one of its extreme values, either +1 or −1 (Figure 7a and 7b).

• We have positive correlation if the sign of the correlation coefficient is positive; then there is a direct relationship between the two variables so that as one variable increases in value, the other variable increases (Figure 7a) or there is a tendency for it to do so.

• We have negative correlation if the sign of the correlation coefficient is negative; then there is an inverse relationship between the two variables so that as one variable increases in value, the other variable decreases (Figure 7b) or there is a tendency for it to do so.

• We have no linear association (i.e. the variables are uncorrelated) if the correlation coefficient is zero; then there is a random scatter of points with no indication of a linear relation between the variables (Figure 7c.). Note that a non-linear relationship between the variables can also give a correlation coefficient of zero.

Moments

In statistics, moments are measures of the shape and variability of a data set. They are used to describe the location and dispersion of the data. There are several types of moments that can be calculated, each providing different information about the data set.

Moments is a term which refers to a measure of force with respect to its tendency which provides rotation. The strength of the tendency depends upon the amount of force and distance from the point of origin where force is exerted.

So total moments of all the forces about origin, if total moment is divided by the total force, which is called moment actually arithmetic mean for frequency distribution.

Hence, arithmetic mean is called first moment about the origin

• Arithmetic mean of various powers expressed as deviation from mean in any distribution is called the moment of the distribution.

What is dispersion?

In statistics, dispersion (also called variability, scatter, or spread) is the extent to which a distribution is stretched or squeezed. Common examples of measures of statistical dispersion are the variance, standard deviation, and interquartile range. For instance, when the variance of data in a set is large, the data is widely scattered. On the other hand, when the variance is small, the data in the set is clustered.

Dispersion is contrasted with location or central tendency, and together they are the most used properties of distributions.

Measure of dispersion

(a) Range

The range is defined as the difference between the largest and smallest observations. Range(X)= Max(X)- Min (X)

Example

The range in statistics for a given data set is the difference between the highest and lowest values. For example, if the given data set is {2,5,8,10,3}, then the range will be 10 – 2 = 8. Thus, the range could also be defined as the difference between the highest observation and lowest observation.

The central tendency measure is defined as the number used to represent the center or middle of a set of data values. The three commonly used measures of central tendency are the mean, median, and mode.

Measures of location (averages)

The term average refers to any one of several measures of the central tendency of a data set.

• The mean has the disadvantage that its value is influenced by outliers. An outlier is an observation whose value is highly inconsistent with the main body of the data. An outlier with an excessively large value will tend to increase the mean unduly, whilst a particularly small value will decrease it.

• The mean is an appropriate measure of central tendency if the distribution of the data is symmetrical.

The mean will be ‘pulled’ to the right (increased in value) if the distribution is skewed to the right, and ‘pulled’ to the left (decreased in value) if the distribution is skewed to the left.

2.1 What is a frequency distribution?

A frequency distribution shows the frequencies of occurrence of the observations in a data set. Often the distribution of the observed data is called an empirical frequency distribution, in contrast to the theoretical probability distribution determined from a mathematical model.

The class interval is a term used in statistics when we are given a continuous series. Class means a group of numbers in which items are placed such as 0-10, 10-20, 20-30, etc. Class interval refers to the numerical width of any class in a particular distribution.

2.2 Relative frequency distributions

Although creating a frequency distribution is a useful way of describing a set of observations, it is difficult to compare two or more frequency distributions if the total number of observations in each distribution is different. A way of overcoming this difficulty is to calculate the proportion or percentage of observations in each class or category. These are called relative frequencies and each is obtained by dividing the frequency for that category by the total number of observations (column 3 of Table 2.1). The sum of the relative frequencies of all the categories is unity (or 100%) apart from rounding errors.

Statistics

It is a branch of mathematics, which comprises several areas like Algebra, Trigonometry, Calculus, Geometry, Statistics and Probability etc.

Biostatistics is a mathematical science which analyses numerical facts or biometric data of biological events following certain rules like design of experiments, analysis of data, presentation of data with tables, figures hypothesis testing, making a probability prediction and conclusion etc.

or it is an art of analysis and presentation of data following certain rules and international norms accepted by international journals for pharmacology experiments, animal farm data, human and animal medicines data, epidemiology data, non-parametric data etc.

What is statistics?

The number of introductory or elementary texts on the subject of statistics indicates how important the subject has become for everyone in the biological sciences. However, the fact that there are many texts might also suggest that we have yet to discover a fool proof method of presenting what is required. The problem confronted in biological statistics is as follows:

When there is a need to make a set of numerical observations in biology, it has been observed that the values are scattered. Then questions arise to know whether these values differ because of factors e.g. treatments or these are part of a ‘background’ i.e., natural variation. You need to evaluate what the numbers actually mean, and to represent them in a way that readily communicates their meaning to others.

To combat malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies, nutrition-sensitive agriculture is a food-based strategy to agricultural development that emphasizes dietary diversity, fortification, and consumption of nutrient-rich foods. This strategy recognizes the importance of consuming a wide range of foods for optimal nutrition and acknowledges the social and economic significance of the food and agriculture industries in supporting rural livelihoods (WHO, 2014)

The overarching goal of nutrition-sensitive agriculture is to enhance the ability of the global food system to produce nutritious outcomes. An increasing number of governments, donor agencies, and development organizations are endorsing nutrition-sensitive agriculture as a means to achieve their developmental objectives. However, relying solely on nutrition-specific interventions falls short of meeting global targets for improving nutrition. Agriculture, with its significant potential to influence nutrition outcomes, must also play a role. 

Fisheries and aquaculture sector have been increasingly recognized for their essential contribution to global food security and nutrition. In 2020, total global catches in inland waters were 11.47 million tonnes and India stands top in the world with 1.8 million tonnes. India has witnessed remarkable growth in fish production in the last couple of years and stands second in world aquaculture production. The total fish production during 20-21 is estimated at 14.7 million metric tonnes (MMT) with a contribution of 11.25 MMT from inland sector and 3.48 MMT from marine sector. During FY 2020-21, export of marine products stood at 1.15 MMT and valued at Rs. 43,717.26 crores despite the market uncertainties raised by the Covid-19 pandemic outbreak. The inland open water resources of India are the life line of country?s vast population and provide nutritional and livelihood security besides other innumerable economic, social and ecological services. In addition to India, countries of Mekong cooperations including Myanmar, LaoPDR, Vietnam, Copyright: New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi, India. Commercial Use will call for Legal Action. Cambodia and Thailand contribute significantly to the Asian Fish production. As per FAO (2022) report, a number of Asian countries majorly contribute to the Inland capture fisheries production including India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Cambodia have reported a steady or decline in fish catch, since the last few decades. Though there are several potential threats behind this declining fish production trend, major is linked to water availability, pollution, overfishing and climate change. 

India’s journey through the 75 years of independence and its splendid achievements are acclaimed by the Government of India through its initiative, Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav. Since independence, the nation has traversed a great distance and achieved feats in various spheres, such as agriculture, science, technology, art and culture, to name a few. Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav commemorates 75 glorious years of progressive India and its rich history, diverse population, magnificent culture and great achievements. The Hon’ble Prime Minister of India, Shri Narendra Modi’s, through this campaign, envisioned the foundation of a self-reliant India, and he said, “The Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav means elixir of energy of independence; elixir of inspirations of the warriors of freedom struggle; elixir of new ideas and pledges; and elixir of Aatmanir bharta. Therefore, this Mahotsav is a festival of awakening the nation a festival of fulfilling the dream of good governance, and a festival of global peace and development”

1 . The government of India, to celebrate the 75th anniversary of India’s independence, organised a series of events under the campaign Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav. 

In May 2020, The Government of India launched the flagship scheme called Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY), with an estimated investment of Rs. 20050 crores, comprising a Central share of Rs. 9407.00 crores, a state share of Rs 4880.00 crores, and a Beneficiary contribution of Rs. 5763.00 crores for its implementation during a period of 5 years from FY 2020-21 to FY 2024-25 in all States/Union Territories (Guidelines on Entrepreneurship Models in Fisheries and Aquaculture under PMMSY, 2020). The PMMSY will address critical gaps in fish production and productivity, quality, technology, traceability, post-harvest infrastructure, and management.

Madhya Pradesh has the highest population of Schedule tribes in India. With a population of 15,316,784, they occupy 21.1% of the state’s total population and 14.7% of the total tribal population of India. About 61% of the rural tribal population in Madhya Pradesh is living below the poverty line and is primarily relying on agriculture and allied industries for their livelihood (Planning Commission Report, 2010). But since the majority of them rely on unscientific subsistence farming, the income earned from such practices is very low. Apart from the higher poverty level, the nutrition levels in Madhya Pradesh also signify a grave situation. The state has one of the highest levels of anaemic children and women in India, and this incidence is highest in tribal regions of the state. The tribal regions of Madhya Pradesh have one of the highest percentages of malnourished children in India (UNICEF, 2019). The undernutrition and anaemia in tribes are primarily due to the lack of access to quality food. 

Ornamental fish breeding and culture: an innovative scheme for the development of rural women.” Funded by the Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science & Technology Govt. of India, New Delhi.

Selection of members and group formation

The location was selected to impart the training on ornamental fish culture, based on the PRA, group discussions, and meetings with NGOs, village panchayat authorities, and members of the area. Raichak, Kamar Pool, and Diamond Harbour Road were the working locations. Groups formed by identifying the interested women from the selected location. In each group, there are 25 women registered for the training. The selected members were introduced to the ornamental fish farms located at Amtala to appraise the working possibilities and viability of the activities.

Ornamental fish trade is a part of the culture of fisheries in India and is an important sector for livelihood and income generation, especially for women. Recent trends in production and demand share assume that during the next five years, domestic trade will double from the present. The growth of any business depends on technology, management, market, and infrastructure. The ornamental fish industry includes breeding of exotic live-bearer and egg layer fish, captive breeding of indigenous ornamental fish, the development of small-scale enterprises, backyard fish breeding and culture activities in rural areas, and ancillary units with high potential for large- scale exports as part of the multibillion-dollar global trade of the ornamental fish sector. Women are sensible and caring enough to take care of and nurture the small, tiny, colourful fish in their backyard units of ornamental fish. One of the important sectors of the ornamental fish industry is aquarium making and decoration, which is not only women friendly but also ensures earnings. 

The SCSP training programme on biofloc-based fish farming in Manipur aimed to promote entrepreneurship in fish farming by providing training on modern and innovative techniques. The training programme was sponsored by MANAGE, Hyderabad, and was conducted by two organisations in Manipur: AOC Manipur and Green Biotech Ecosolutions Pvt. Ltd. The programme was held over a period of three days at Khurkhul Village, Imphal West, Manipur. The programme focused on biofloc-based fish farming, which is an innovative and sustainable method of fish farming that uses microbial flocs as a source of nutrition for fish.

There are various training programmes being conducted in Tamil Nadu to promote seaweed cultivation and its various applications. The one-day SCSP training programme organised by ICAR-RVS KVK, Tiruneveli, Tamil Nadu, and the three-day SCSP training programme on seaweed for food and industrial application by Jehovah Shamma Aqua One Centre, both sponsored by MANAGE, Hyderabad, seem to have been well received by the coastal population of Tamil Nadu. The training programmes covered topics such as the status and distribution of seaweeds on the Indian coast, by-products from marine seaweeds, and nutraceutical products from marine seaweeds. These are important areas of knowledge that can help the coastal population explore the various opportunities available in seaweed cultivation and to utilise the seaweed species to their full potential.

A one -day SCSP training program was organised by Mitraniketan Krishi Vigyan Kendra (ICAR), Kerala on 17 December 2021. The training theme was “Market opportunities for value-added Fish Products.” 4 male and 46 female participants participated in the training program. The training was taken at KVK, Mitaraniketan, Kerala.

The sessions were oriented towards theory and practice. The training modules and session topics delivered on various value-added fishery products were arranged for the beneficiaries to transfer their expertise in fishery products and equip them to establish entrepreneurship in fish and fishery products and market the fishery products. In addition to providing financial support for women, the programme would also help pregnant women and adolescent girls with their nutritional needs

ICAR SCAD Krishi Vigyan Kendra Thoothukudi District, Tamil Nadu, organised a 3 -day SCSP training programme on inland shrimp farming during 21st - 23rd December 2021, sponsered by MANAGE, Hyderabad. SC/ ST communities are given training on sustainable shrimp/prawn culture so as to enable them to take up shrimp culture as a means of self-employment or to get employed in shrimp farms by other farmers, thereby earning a livelihood. The participants were provided with hands-on training on pond preparation, stocking, feeding, water quality management, disease control, harvesting, and post-harvest processing of shrimp. In addition to this, they were also given insights into market trends and opportunities for shrimp farming. The participants were enthusiastic and showed keen interest in learning about the latest shrimp farming techniques and practices.

The aim of this training programme was to empower women from the Scheduled Caste community by providing them with skills to create handmade seashell jewellery and other handicraft products, which they could then sell to supplement their income. The training was conducted in a modular format, which included soft skill development, theoretical sessions, practical sessions, and field visits. The training programme was conducted in Keelathilayenthal Village in Ramanathapuram District, which is known for its rich marine life and abundance of seashells.

About the seashell-making-entrepreneurship model

The training programme was funded by MANAGE, Hyderabad, and was overseen by Dr. Shahaji Phand, Programme Director, and Dr. Sushrirekha Das, Coordinator. All 30 participants were women from the fishing community who were interested in learning seashell ornament- making skills. 

KVK Ramkrishna Ashram in Kolkata undertook a 5-day SCSP (Schedule Class Sub-Plan) training programme from MANAGE, Hyderabad, to develop integrated farming practices and encourage young people to choose farming as a career. West Bengal’s status as the highest fish producing state in India and its leadership in fish seed production present a significant opportunity for farmers and entrepreneurs in the fishery sector. Fish is widely consumed throughout the nation, especially in West Bengal, where it is estimated that each person consumes 15.6 kg of fish per year, compared to India’s average of 9.0 kg. It is regarded as a major source of essential micronutrients and the primary source of animal protein. By leveraging smart farming solutions enabled by technology, farmers can increase their productivity and income, while also meeting the demand for fish and essential micronutrients in the region. The training programme could play a vital role in empowering farmers and entrepreneurs in the state to adopt innovative and sustainable farming practices and make the most of these opportunities.

The one-day SCSP-training program on “Opportunities for fish farmer producer companies and government schemes for fisheries stockholders” was organised by Shashwat Sheti Vikas Pratishthan, Shivajinagar, Pune, Maharastra, on 4 January 2022. The training programme was sponsored by MANAGE, Hyderabad. 50 people participated in the training program, consisting of agrifarmers, fishermen and unemployed youths. Out of the 50 participants, 19 were women and 31 were men.

The session is all about FPO formation MANAGE organised a training programme to sensitise farmers about Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) and various schemes under PMMSY. FPOs can help farmers take advantage of economies of scale in production and marketing, and the government’s plan to establish 10,000 new FPOs by 2024 is a step in the right direction. It is while social media is a powerful tool for spreading information quickly, not everyone has access to it, especially in rural areas. So, training programmes like this can be very effective in reaching out to farmers and providing them with the information they need to make informed decisions about their farming practices.

It is clear that Odisha has significant potential for aquaculture due to its vast brackish water resources. However, as the aquaculture industry grows, it is important for farmers to be knowledgeable about the inputs and techniques they use to ensure the sustainability of the industry. A total of 2.98 lakh ha of estuaries, 0.081 lakh ha of backwater, 0.80 lakh ha of Chilika Lake, and 0.32 lakh ha of cultivable brackish water area make up the 4.18 lakh ha potential brackish water area for fish and shrimp production. Additionally, proper disease diagnosis and management are crucial for reducing the risk of disease outbreaks and ensuring the health of the aquatic animals being farmed. With appropriate training and support from organisations such as the Aqua One Centre, farmers can improve their practices and increase their yields, while also contributing to the economic growth of the region.

The demand for nutrients is rising, along with the population, which is rapidly expanding. The sustainability of life on earth now places a high focus on protecting the sources of sustenance. In this regard, aquaculture has a crucial role to play. The regulated raising of fish and other breeds in a particular environment is known as aquaculture. The natural resources and other elements required for sustainable development can be preserved using this method. The promotion of the value of nutrients and the expansion of employment prospects in the future are both made possible by aquaculture. Biofloc fish farming, which has set trends in fish farming all over India, facilitates recycling and reusing of the nutrients in the culture medium by filtering the unwanted substances and metabolites and converting them into nutrients, which benefits the zero exchange of water.

Fresh fish serves as a protein-rich food for people of all income groups. Dry fish is in greater demand when the availability of fresh fish in the market is low. Dry fish have a higher concentration of protein (in terms of weight) as compared to wet fish and are an inexpensive source of animal protein. Moreover, dry fish production provides employment opportunities to fishermen, fish farmers, rural youth, and women and also helps them to generate extra income. In addition, it also provides food and nutritional security to the rural, underprivileged population. Though dry fish enterprises have a significant role in improving the livelihood as well as the nutritional security of society, not much attention has been paid to the production and marketing of dry fish products.

Village Madangunj is situated on the bank of the Hatania Duaniya, a branch of the Hoogly River in Namkhana. The cyclone Aila unleashed its fury on the people residing on the islands in the Sundarbans and changed their lives forever. The Sundarban is the world’s largest mangrove forest and home to the Royal Bengal Tiger. The cyclone also affected the fish resources and livelihood of the villagers. Efforts were made to provide alternative sources of livelihood to the poor people of these villages.

Challenges and opportunities

We conducted field surveys to understand the status of small indigenous fish after cyclone Aila in the Sunderban region, particularly in Namkhana block, which was badly affected by the cyclone. Hundreds of people under various age groups ranging from 27 to 65 years old and involved in various occupations were interviewed personally to know about the present status of small indigenous fish after Aila. It was reported by 60% of the respondents that there is a significant reduction in the availability of small indigenous fish (SIF). To rejuvenate their stocks, it was decided to develop a conservation site, as a common seed bank for SIF. The SIF are self-recruiting species and can be cultured in various cultural systems like ponds, canals, wetlands, cages, etc. They can tolerate the adverse water quality cond

Canals and waterways are the most important source for irrigation and have been identified as one of the most important aquatic resources for fish culture. The natural canal systems in the Sundarbans cover an area of 907.33 ha. Fisheries activities were planned in order to provide a source of livelihood to the underprivileged people of the cyclone-prone area of the Sundarbans.

Challenges and opportunities

Fisheries in the Sundarbans are poorly documented and less attention is given to producing fish from canals. Information on the trophic status of the canal habitat, biotic community structure, and hydrological parameters is also lacking. However, the villagers reported that the fish enter these canals from the source waters naturally, and form natural populations. The villagers residing beside the canal catch fish, especially during monsoon, and the women of the adjoining households often collect small indigenous fish (SIFs) or prawns through small dragnets or scoop nets for household consumption. The shared information of the villagers was utilised to sensitise them and convince them to initiate fish culture in these canals.

The village of Khan Saheber Abad is located in the Sagar subdivision of South 24 Parganas district in West Bengal, India. It is situated 4.8 km away from the sub-district headquarter Rudranagar (the tehsildar office) and 99.6 km away from the district headquarter Alipore. A training programme was conducted for the empowerment of rural tribal communities through sustainable inland fisheries development and utilisation of open water bodies in the village.

Challenges and opportunities

The Khan Saheber Abad is primarily a tribal dominated village. These Tribal people belong to the Santhal community. They have a low level of literacy, declining or stagnant population, and are economically weak, but they are very close to nature.

Health benefits of fish consumption

Fisheries and aquaculture play an important role in providing food and nutritional security. Fish is a rich source of quality animal proteins, omega- 3: poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), minerals, and vitamins. Fish is a superfood that is rich in all nutrients except carbohydrates, and its combination with rice or wheat makes it a complete food, forming a balanced diet with the right combination of macronutrients (quality proteins, fats, and carbohydrates) and micronutrients (minerals and vitamins), which are essential for good health.

Aquaculture is one of the fastest-growing food production sectors. India is bestowed with all types of aquatic habitats; freshwater, including the cold waters in the highlands, brackish waters, and the marine system. Being a tropical country, India is a biodiversity hotspot. It is rich in a wide variety of fish fauna, and wherever there is water, there are fish. Thus, fish is widely available in India, Thus, India is the third largest fish producing country and ranks second in aquaculture production. In comparison to other sources of animal proteins, fish is more chicken, mutton, beef, pork, etc., as affordable is available in wide varieties in the markets. Therefore, the common man can afford to consume fish regularly and provide his family with a balanced and healthy diet.

As a diet, fish is important for all age groups of humans. Fish oil, especially the omega-3 PUFAs, EPA, and DHA, keeps away several preventable human ailments (Table 1).

Packaging is an essential tool to make products stand out from the competition. Beyond the shelf appeal, packaging also provides protection to the contents from physical, chemical and microbiological hazards. However, a lesser known fact is that the same packaging material could also be a source of chemical contaminants, and hence, may impact food safety as well as food quality. Among the different components of packaging material, packaging inks play a critical role as they might hamper product and consumer safety.

Each packaging ink is a mixture of different chemicals and some of these chemicals might be harmful with the potential to migrate to the foodstuff. In terms of risk, the chemicals could be toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, repro-toxic and even endocrine disruptors. The chemical contaminants from the packaging inks can get transferred to the foodstuff by a process called migration.

Over the last two decades, a number of scientific papers have been published, revealing the migration potential of substances from the printed matter. However, the first big scandal that brought the subject alive was about the f indings of isopropyl thioxanthone (ITX, a low molecular photo initiator used in UV inks) in baby milk and other liquid foodstuffs all over Europe, resulting in a product recall in the year 2005. The food scandal alerted the packaging chain about the linkage between packaging inks and food safety. Consequently, the authorities issued strict regulations for the application of printing inks as well as general food control measures.

Introduction

Nanotechnology is a rapidly expanding branch of science that has a critical role to play in raising the standard of living for people in the modern world. The global market for nanotechnology in food packaging is valued at 20 billion in 2023 and is expected to grow to 46.50 billion by 2031, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 11.32% from 2024 to 2031 (InsightAce Analytic, 2023). The rapid expansion of nanotechnology has paved the way for number of industrial areas, including food processing, food contact materials, and agricultural output (Mohammadi & Jafari, 2021). Nanotechnology is the fastest-growing field of science that significantly enhances the quality of life in today's world. This rapid advancement has opened up numerous industrial sectors, such as food processing, food contact materials, and agricultural production. A natural advancement is the integration of nanotechnology into food packaging. This includes enhanced packaging, active packaging, and a new category known as smart or intelligent packaging. Food contact materials, such as antimicrobial metals and oxides, biodegradable nanocomposites, and nanosensors, are utilized to create active and intelligent packaging. These materials enhance thermal and mechanical durability, increase safety and extend the shelf life of food, and facilitate the monitoring of packaged food (Kah et al., 2013). At the nanoscale, material properties change significantly, making it challenging to predict, identify, evaluate, and manage the health, safety, and environmental risks associated with nanomaterials. For example, nanoparticles (NPs) of 50 nm can enter cells, those of 70 nm can penetrate the lungs, and 30 nm NPs can cross blood-brain barriers.

Introduction

The landscape of the Indian food industry has undergone a dramatic transformation in recent years. Rising disposable incomes, coupled with the rapid pace of urbanization, have fuelled a surge in demand for convenient and processed food options. Consumers, increasingly pressed for time, are turning towards ready-to-eat meals, packaged snacks, and a wider variety of processed food products. While this trend signifies a growing economy and changing lifestyles, it has also brought to light a critical concern: ensuring food safety and empowering consumers with clear and accessible information. In order to empower consumers to make educated food choices and build trust between brands and consumers, food label transparency is crucial. Transparent labelling is essential for improving public health because it gives precise and unambiguous information about ingredients, nutritional value, and possible allergies. This information helps prevent diseases linked to a certain lifestyle, such diabetes, heart disease, and obesity. Additionally, it guarantees that customers are not misled about the quality or provenance of their food, shielding them from dishonest business tactics. Transparency also promotes market justice by levelling the playing field, making product integrity apparent, and fostering creativity and brand loyalty. Transparent labelling promotes ethical and sustainable consumption while also facilitating international trade by adhering to regulatory norms in many countries.

Recognizing this need for a more transparent and consumer-centric food ecosystem, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) introduced the FSS Labelling and Display (L & D) Regulations in 2020 under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 (FSS Act). This landmark legislation marked a significant shift in the way food is labelled and marketed in India. By establishing stricter regulations and mandating the inclusion of comprehensive information on food packaging, the FSSAI aimed to empower consumers to make informed choices while also promoting fair competition within the food industry. This comprehensive review delves into the intricacies of the FSS Labelling and Display Regulations 2020. It explores the key provisions of the regulations, analyzes their impact on various stakeholders, and examines the challenges and opportunities associated with their implementation. By providing an in-depth analysis, this chapter aims to shed light on the significance of these regulations in shaping a more responsible and transparent food industry landscape in India.

Introduction

Food packaging materials development has been driven by the need to protect food products throughout distribution and storage. Nanotechnology offers opportunities to improve technical packaging features and develop sustainable smart packaging and sensors for monitoring product quality over time. However, the inherent permeability of conventional packaging materials to atmospheric gases and water vapour poses challenges in maintaining optimal conditions for food. The integration of nanotechnology into food packaging has emerged as a promising solution to address these challenges. Nanocomposite materials, composed of a polymer matrix and nanoscale fillers, offer a novel approach to enhancing packaging performance while addressing issues related to food spoilage, degradation, and safety.

Nanocomposite materials encompass a range of nanomaterials, including inorganic (i.e., metals and metal oxides), nanoclay, organic nanomaterials, and nanoemulsions (Huang et al., 2018; Jamaleddin et al., 2019; P. Kumar et al., 2020). NMs are used for three types of packaging: improved packaging, active packaging and intelligent packaging, Nanotechnology facilitates the development of improved bio-based packaging, enhancing mechanical strength and barrier performance while maintaining stability under varying environmental conditions (S. Kumar et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020). Active packaging harnesses nanostructures to encapsulate bioactive compounds, encompassing antimicrobials, antioxidants, and oxygen scavengers, which can interact with food and extend its shelf life (Motelica et al., 2020). Intelligent packaging releases active compounds in response to environmental triggers such as temperature or pH changes, transforming packaging into an intelligent, actively responsive material (Jamróz et al., 2019).

Introduction

A biopolymer is defined as a polymeric substance obtained from any living organism (plant or animal) [1]. These polymers are organic compounds where simpler molecules are covalently bonded with each other [2]. Although biopolymers are strictly synthesized naturally by living cells but some of them are also synthesized from non-biomaterial as well. Natural biopolymers are of different types based on their chemical nature like carbohydrate based, protein based or lipid based. Biopolymers can be broken down by the action of naturally-occurring organisms which leaves organic non-harming by-products like water and carbon dioxide in the environment[3].

Bio polymers are gaining importance in the field of food packaging, medical application, commodity packaging etc. because of their have specific physical, chemical, biological, biomechanical and degradation properties. Wide ranges of natural or synthetic biopolymers capable of undergoing degradation hydrolytically or enzymatically are being investigated for many applications[1]. Bio polymers are mainly based on two properties: a) Biological origin b) Biodegradability.

Earlier natural biopolymers such as cellulose, protein, starch have been used extensively for food applications. Recently, synthetic biopolymers such as polylactic acid (PLA), polycaprolactone (PCL), polyglycolic acid (PGA), polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH), and polybutylene succinate (PBS) are gaining more attention[4] for various applications. Natural biopolymers are more stereospecific and mostly hydrophilic having complex 3D structures as compared to the synthetic polymers[2]. Among the synthetic biopolymers some are microbiologically degradable in the environment whereas some are recyclable[1].

Introduction

The purpose of this e-book is to outline the main hazards in food production and processing that could influence the safety of foods and thus the health and wellbeing of consumers. The suggestive actions to restrain the formation of compounds or organisms that may threaten the safety of a food will be discussed along with the legal and regulatory framework.

“Safe Food Now for a Healthy Tomorrow”

Food is the third most basic human need, after air and water. Only when food is safe can it contribute to our food security and health. When food is not safe, people cannot thrive, hunger and poverty cannot be alleviated, and a healthy life is not possible. Food safety has a significant impact on human health, and food, which is essential for human survival, comes from plants and animals. Food safety is a core tenet of One Health.

This chapter gives an overview of the main hazards such as physical hazards, chemical hazards, biological hazards, and adulterants in different types of foods and how the hazards influence the safety of the food along with health and well-being of the consumers. The effective way of management of these hazards and different hazard limits set by the regulators such as FSSAI, USFDA, EU AND CODEX along with labelling requirements for the hazards has been discussed in this chapter.