eChapters

Agricultural production system has gone a long way in supporting the world’s food requirement. The projected estimates revealed that to meet the global population of about 11.3 billion in 2050, the global demand for cereal will increase by 60% (Rosegrant and Cline, 2003, Bengtsson et al., 2006). Agriculture is considered as the chief agent of environmental transformation. The unrestrained attitude of Homo sapiens towards the use of natural resource catalyzing the causes leading to global warming, has increased the challenges manifold to provide food security in a sustainable manner. Increased concentration of CO2 and other green house gases have resulted in an increase of 0.760 C in surface temperature globally since nineteenth century and the mean global surface temperature is predicted to increase by an additional 1.30C to 1.80C by 2050( IPCC, 2007). Sinha and Swaminathan (1991) reported that an increase of 20C in temperature could decrease the rice yield by about 0.75 t/ha in the high yield areas and a 0.5oC increase in winter temperature would reduce wheat yield 0.45 t/ha.

GHG emissions as an Agriculture
Agriculture is significant source of GHG emission. Farming records for roughly 10-12 % of absolute anthropogenic GHG emissions, contributing 40 % of all out methane (CH4) and 60 % of nitrous oxide (N2O); agriculture is greatest wellspring of anthropogenic non-CO2 discharges. CH4 begins predominantly from metabolic action of methane-creating microscopic organisms in rice paddy soils and the gastrointestinal maturation of ruminants. N2O discharges get predominantly from farmland soil nitrification and de-nitrification under nitrogen manure application. Rural waste treatment, for example, fertilizing the soil and biogas creation, likewise straightforwardly brings about CH4 and N2O discharges. The change of land use from backwoods to cropland increments soil CO2 discharges. Notwithstanding immediate GHG discharges, farming exercises like apparatus tasks, and compost and feed inputs additionally by implication increment the carbon impression of farming by means of different pathways like petroleum product utilization.
Agriculture a Key Carbon Sinks
Farming moreover addresses a key carbon sink, in spite of the way that it is a huge wellspring of GHG. Horticultural perennials, for instance, field, backwoods, natural item estates and tea houses can get CO2 from the Environment through photosynthesis. It is evaluated that around 13 % of the CO2 emanated by oil based commodity use is consumed by natural vegetation reliably. Vegetation stores are changed into soil natural carbon (SOC) by the activities of microorganisms. In particular, microbial Nero mass can associate with soil minerals to shape a muddled that is a protected carbon pool and the soil carbon can subsequently be taken care of for a surprisingly long time; this carbon tirelessness instrument is known as a soil microbial-mineral carbon siphon. The soil carbon pool (2400 Gt) truly relies upon twice that set aside in the terrestrial vegetation and on different occasions that set aside in the air. The “4 for every 1000 soil carbon overhaul plan,” first proposed by the French service of agribusiness at the Collected Nations Environmental Change Gettogether held in 2015, relies upon the epic carbon-sink breaking point of soils.

Globally, the climate change is clearly evident in the form of changing weather pattern, and this has direct and indirect bearing on livestock production. Scientific evidence from multiple resources indicates that, without a doubt, climate is changing. It is also possible to suggest with increased confidence that climate is changing because of increased human activities which have serious repercussions on social and economic development. Greenhouse gases absorb heat from the sun in the atmosphere and reduce the amount of heat escaping into space. This extra heat has been found to be the primary cause of observed changes in the climate system over the 20th century. Livestock make a necessary and important contribution to global calorie, protein supplies and important micro nutrients such as B12, iron, calcium. They produce 17% of calories consumed globally and 33% of protein. Livestock can increase the world’s edible protein balance by transforming inedible protein found in forage into forms that people can digest. Climate change poses serious threats to livestock production. Various climate model projections suggest that by the year 2100, mean global temperature may be 1.1–6.4 °C

Introduction

Climate change has been, and continues to be one of the important causes of low productivity from animal agriculture in tropical countries like India through crop failures, fodder scarcity and increased incidence of endemic animal diseases. It impacts animal agriculture and cause immediate danger for human societies as livelihoods and food production are being adversely affected. Farm ruminant animals contribute to food supply by converting low-value materials, inedible or unpalatable for human, into milk, meat, and eggs and directly contribute to nutritional security. Besides contributing over one-fourth to the agricultural GDP, it provides employment to 18 million people in principal or subsidiary status in India. Nearly two-thirds of farm households are associated with farm animal rearing and 80% of them are small landholders (≤2 ha). As a result of various socio-economic and market driven factors, during the last one decade, large scale transformation took place in both extensive and intensive animal agriculture with regards to type and breed of the animal. A lot of high yielding, low disease resistant and more vulnerable crossbreed animal population have been increased in present animal production systems inorder to meet the market demands. Climate changes could impact severely the economic viability and production of these intensive animal production systems through increased incidence of drought/?oods/cyclones/hailstorms etc. Drought and high ambient temperatures in particular, affects production of milk, meat and egg, reproduction, health of animals and condition of pastures. Changes in pasture and crop biomass availability and quality affect animal production through changes in daily or seasonal feed supplies. Heavy rains and associated ?oods would washout the fodder resources and animals. Recent incidences of severe hail storms are causing brutal injuries to the grazing animals. To mitigate the adverse affects of extreme weather events and cope with changing climate, much precised resilient technologies suitable to local conditions and resources are needed. Hence, one should be critical in recommending smart animal-agriculture technologies in view of much diversified and heterogeneous group of farmers and the resources accessible to them. This will help in sustainable productivity from animal-agriculture and profitability to the farmers even in the era of climate change.

Abstract

Increased human activities such as agriculture, mining, and manufacturing have resulted in rapid increase of green house gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. Atmospheric accumulation of the GHGs results into global warming and climate variability or change. Climate change due to enhanced greenhouse effect arising as a result of human activity is considered a major global environmental threat to mankind today. Perhaps nowhere in the globe are people more vulnerable to climate change than in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Most livelihoods in SSA are climate-sensitive due to over dependency on land and other natural resources and are thus perched on the brink of disaster due to climate change.

Climate change is now undoubtedly affecting millions of people across Africa and it actually threatens to wipe-out the past and current global efforts made to tackle poverty unless urgent and robust decisions and actions are taken. This is also a wake-up call for the world to adopt alternative development models that would ensure massive cuts in GHG emissions to avoid a potentially irreversible change. Scientists have warned that unless the global community, especially the developed countries, take genuine steps now to reduce their emissions; many more millions of people in the developing world will be negatively impacted by climate change.

Key facts

    
•    Agriculture is the major land use across the globe. Agriculture production (plant growth) is highly dependent on climate since crop growth is influenced by solar radiation, temperature and precipitation. Agriculture is also sensitive to climate variability and weather extremes (droughts, floods, severe storms).
    
•    The yields of C₃ crops (rice, wheat, and soybean) is expected to increase (10-20%) with predicted doubling of CO₂ concentrations compared to C₄ crops (maize, sorghum, millet, sugarcane) since C₃ plants respond readily/positively to increased CO₂ levels. Therefore, CO₂ enrichment may benefit temperate and humid tropical agriculture compared to semi-arid tropics.
    
•    The predicted rise of temperature could impact crop and horticulture yield if it exceeds optimal temperature range. For example, low latitudes crops are being grown near the limits of temperature tolerance and global warming may put them to higher stress.
    
•    On a world wide basis, global warming would benefit the mid to high latitude zones for agriculture (for a small change of temperature of 1-3^ºC), whereas low latitudes, semi-arid and tropical areas will have much reduced crop and livestock yields. However, adaptation measures may reduce such impacts.

Key facts

Agriculture
    
·    Agriculture production (plant growth) is highly dependent on climate since crop growth is influenced by solar radiation, temperature and precipitation and sensitive to climate variability and weather extremes (droughts, floods, severe storms).
    
·    Climate change is projected to have an effect on local agriculture and the net result could be harmful (e.g. frequent droughts, salinization of agriculture land due to sea level rise) or beneficial, (e.g. enhance CO₂ and higher yield, longer growing season, increased precipitation) or mixed.
    
·    Climate change or a doubling of GHGs (2 x CO₂) is projected to cause both gains and losses of agriculture land.
    
·    Each crop has a specific temperature range at which vegetative and reproductive growth will proceed at the optimal rate and exposures to extreme temperatures during these phases can impact growth and yield. Higher temperatures during the reproductive stage of development can affect pollen viability, fertilization and grain or fruit formation. 
    
·    Warming generally allow plants to grow faster that are below their optimum temperature, however for cereal crops faster growth means there is less time for the grain itself to grow and mature, reducing yields. 
    
·    Night-time temperatures are rising faster than daytime temperatures and are expected to continue rise in the future. According to International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines, the rise of night time temperature decreases rice yield by 10% for each 1°C increase in growing-season night time temperature in the dry season.

Key Facts
        
Agricultural food
    
·    There are multiple pathways through which climate-related factors may impact food contamination and food safety, food quality, foodborne diseases including changes in temperature and precipitation patterns, increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, ocean warming and acidification and changes in the transport pathways of complex contaminants.
    
·    All or most foodborne pathogens and their associated diseases are linked to changing environmental conditions, the notable of which are campylobacteriosis, salmonellosis and vibriosis.
    
·    An estimated 30% of reported cases of salmonellosis across much of continental Europe have been attributed to warm temperatures, especially when they exceed a threshold of 6°C above average. Likewise both in Australia and Canada a positive correlation was found between increasing temperature and incidence of salmonellosis.
    
·    Zoonosis such as Rift Valley Fever (RVF), West Nile Fever, tick-borne diseases and non-zoonotic animal diseases such as Blue tongue, African horse sickness, African swine fever are examples of animal diseases whose distribution is expected to be strongly influenced by climate change and variability.
    
·    Mycotoxin is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by filamentous fungi, commonly known as moulds and may contaminate agricultural commodities (food) by growing on them both before and after harvest, whenever the humidity and temperature are permissive. The most prominent mycotoxins are aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, ochratoxin-A, fumonisin, and patulin.
    
·    The humans ingestion of mycotoxins occur through consumption of the mycotoxin contaminated plant-based foods, such as grains, maize, barley, rice, coffee, nuts and their residues, and metabolites in animal-derived foods, for example aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk and meat products. In addition, mycotoxins may occur in beer and wine.

Key facts
    
·    The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines food security as a ’situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life’. There are four dimensions of food security: Food Availability (availability of sufficient food for all people at all times, i.e. production); Food Accessibility (physical and economic access to food at all times, i.e. affordability), Food Utilization (access to food that is nutritious, safe and produced in environmentally sustainable ways, i.e. nutrients in food and food safety); and Food Stability (reliability of adequate food supply).
    
·    Agriculture is important for food security since it provides food for the people and is the primary source of livelihood for 36% of the world’s total workforce. In the heavily populated countries such as Asia and the Pacific, about 40% to 50%, and in sub-Saharan Africa, about two-thirds of the working population make their living from agriculture.
    
·    Agriculture, livestock and fisheries production are all sensitive to climate and are affected by its changes. Climate change will increase hunger and malnutrition, emergence of new pests and diseases and will threaten fishing and aquaculture industries.

Key facts

    
•    Though water is the most widely occurring substance on earth, freshwater accounts for only 2.5% whereas the rest of water is saltwater. The agriculture sector uses more than 75% of freshwater available. 
    
•    The current observed climate change impacts on water resources include increased precipitation at high latitudes and temperate areas, decreasing precipitation at low latitudes; decreasing snow covers, and glaciers in most regions; decreasing flows in some river basins; floods and droughts in some countries and significant decreases in lake and river size in Africa.
    
•    A number of climate models projected that a doubling of atmospheric concentrations of CO₂ would increase global precipitation by at least 5%.  The precipitation is expected to increase in some areas, such as, at high latitudes and in the tropics (south east monsoon regions and over the tropical Pacific), whereas the precipitation is likely to decrease in the sub-tropics (e.g. much of North Africa and northern Sahara).

Key facts

    
•    The climate change is likely to affect millions of people both directly (via increased deaths, disease and injury from heatwaves, floods, storms, fires and droughts) and indirectly (through changes in the water, air, food quality and quantity and ranges of vectors, such as mosquitoes, water-borne pathogens).
    
•    Recent observed climate change related effects include: (a) an increase in heat related deaths across the globe (Australia, Canada, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Portugal, Switzerland, UK and USA; (b) spread of vector- and rodent-borne diseases such as malaria (Africa, India) and dengue and (c) increase in food poisoning (New Zealand).
    
•    Heatwaves can cause adverse health effects such as heat cramps, fainting, heat exhaustion and heat stroke. Human deaths due to heatwaves are associated with cardiovascular and respiratory diseases and in 2003 in Europe 70,000 deaths were recorded from heatwaves alone.
    
•    Projections : (a) cold temperature is expected to become less frequent, while heat waves will become more frequent; (b) increases in heat related deaths and illness across the globe including Australia, Germany, Portugal, UK, and USA;  (c) malaria zone may expand in Australia, Africa (highlands), India and  260-320 million more people will be affected by malaria by 2080;  (d) dengue area is likely to increase as climate would be more suitable and by 2085, about 6 billion people will be at risk of contracting dengue fever including Australia and New Zealand; (e) diarrhoeal disease may increase with temperature increase; and (f) cholera outbreaks may rise as a result of more plankton blooms providing nutrients for Vibrio cholerae.

Summary

Biodiversity (the variety of living things) is fundamental to ecosystem structures and functions, and provide the broad spectrum of goods and services that humans derive from natural systems such as food (e.g. fish), protection from disasters such as cyclones, storms, floods (e.g. mangroves) or maintenance of water quality. Species (biodiversity) respond to climate change either staying or moving out or dying out. For example, the rise of temperature as a consequence of climate change may cause some species to (a) stay in the same environment since they can tolerate to adapt to changes; or (b) may cause some species to move out in a suitable environment (e.g. some species to move pole ward, some up in elevation) or (c) some species (fish) to go deep to increased depths in the oceans to escape heat or warming or (d) may cause some species to die out or get extinct (species with restricted distribution, longer generation time will not be able to migrate or adapt to climate change). A pattern of range shifts such as pole wards and upwards has been documented in hundreds of species of plants and animals and is one of the strongest signals of biotic changes from global warming. These shifts result from two processes: cold-edge expansion and warm-edge contraction. There is now abundant evidence for local extinctions from contractions at the warm edges of species’ ranges or warm edge contraction because the species may have already reached the limits of their climatic tolerance. Investigations conducted reveals that many terrestrial and aquatic species are shifting their geographic ranges in response to rapid changes in temperature and precipitation regimes. For example, many terrestrial organisms are currently shifting in latitude or elevation in response to changing climate. It has been estimated that plants and animals have recently shifted to higher elevations at a median rate of 11.0 m per decade, and to higher latitudes at a median rate of 16.9 km per decade.

Summary

Climate change (floods, droughts, rise of temperature and sea level) can directly impact the incidence of water related diseases through effects on water temperature and precipitation frequency and intensity. This chapter focuses on some common water quality related diseases that may enhance due to climate change such as arsenicosis, cholera, cyanobacterial toxins, dengue, diarrhoea and malaria. Arsenicosis is the disease caused by arsenic (As) contamination. As poisoning via groundwater has become a worldwide problem with 21 countries experiencing As groundwater contamination including Bangladesh, India, and China. In Bangladesh, out of 64 districts, As levels in 60 districts have exceeded WHO recommended guidelines of 10 µg/L and in 51 districts it exceeded Bangladesh recommended guidelines of above 50 µg/L. Chronic exposure to As has been linked to carcinogenic effects in both humans and animals. These include cancer of the various skins and internal organs (lung, bladder, liver and kidney) and reproductive and developmental effects; cardiovascular disease; reduced intellectual function in children and mortality. Alternate floods and droughts (due to climate change) have been found associated with the release of As and contamination of groundwater in Bangladesh, therefore may increase the risks of the disease due to rise of extreme events such as floods and droughts. Cholera is a diarrhoeal disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. In 2012, WHO reported 245, 3931 cases of cholera in 48 countries, with more than 3,034 deaths with a case-fatality rate (CFR) of 1.2%. The highest cases were from Africa, followed by Latin America and Asia. The epidemic of cholera is reported to be linked strongly with climate change. Changes in temperature, salinity, rainfall and abundance of phytoplankton have been shown to cause an impact on distribution and survival of V. cholerae. In Bangladesh, cholera (cholera-toxin producing strain of V. cholerae) outbreaks are related to plankton blooms and rise of sea temperature.

Summary

Climate change can affect the quantitative and qualitative status of water resources by altering hydrological cycles, systems and through changes of water quality via chemical and biological contamination. Changes in these variables lead to impacts on all the socio-economic and environmental goods and services that depend on these variables directly or indirectly including water supply, damage to ecosystems, water dependent food production. The most dominant climate drivers for water quantity or water availability are precipitation, run-off and river flows, floods, droughts, snows, glaciers, sea level rise etc. The observed climate change related impacts on world’s water resources/water quantity include increased precipitation at high latitudes and temperate areas and decreasing trends at low latitudes. The annual run-off in some regions may experience increased run-off, such as in high latitudes and large parts of the USA, whereas there has been a decrease in run-off such as parts of West Africa, southern Europe and southernmost of South America. Floods have been the most reported natural disaster events in Africa, Asia and Europe than all other natural disasters and in case of Bangladesh, six extreme floods have occurred in the last two decades. More intense droughts have been reported from Australia, semi-arid and semi-humid regions, western USA and southern Canada, the Sahel. Precipitation is projected to increase at mid- and high latitudes, in the tropics, whereas precipitation is projected to decrease over many sub-tropical areas (North Africa, northern Sahara), tropical Central American (Caribbean) and the Mediterranean. In areas where evaporation rates are expected to increase it would lead to reduced river and stream run-off. In contrast, areas receiving higher precipitation would likely have higher lake and river levels and may experience floods. The annual stream flow in the Murray-Darling basin (Australia) is projected to fall by 10-25% by 2050 and 16-48% by 2100 which would have severe consequences on irrigated agriculture in the region. Rivers depending on the Himalayan glaciers such as the Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Syr Darya and Amu Darya could face water shortages or river run-off due to retreat of glaciers, and this would cause dramatic impact on drinking water supplies, biodiversity, hydropower, industry, agriculture and ecosystems on which about 2.4 billion people in Asia depends. Globally, ground water is the source of one third of all freshwater withdrawals, supplying an estimated 36%, 42% and 27% of the water used for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes, respectively. The demand for groundwater is likely to increase due to global increase of water use for irrigation and a decline in surface water quality and reduced summer flows in snow-dominated basins. It is projected that climate change (drought, floods) will affect groundwater recharge rates (e.g. floods would increase recharge, drought would decrease recharge).

India is the seventh largest country in the world with 17 per cent of the world’s population and with a total geographical area of 329 Mha, extending from 8°4’ to 37°6’ in the North and 68°7’ to 97°25’ in the East. It is bounded by the World’s highest mountains- the Himalayas in the North and surrounded by the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal in the South. The Indian Coastline along the southern part of the Country is over 7500 km long. The Country includes vast plains like the Indo-Gangetic Plains, and the Central Deccan Plateau, bordered by the Western Ghats on either side in the West and the South. The biodiversity in the terrain leads to a wide variety of climatic conditions, ranging from tropical to temperate climates across the Western Ghats. These range from permanent snowfields to tropical coastlands; areas of virtual desert in the northwest to fertile intensively cultivated rice fields in the northeast. A large proportion of India’s population continues to live in rural areas and depends heavily on climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, fisheries, animal agriculture and forestry for its livelihood. Agriculture is the mainstay of Indian economy. The Indian climate is dominated by the great wind system called the Monsoons, on which the Indian agriculture is dependant. The southwest monsoon is critical to the kharif crop (first crop), which accounts for more than 50% of the foodgrains production and 65% of the oilseeds production in the Country. The inter-annual monsoon rainfall variability in India leads to large-scale droughts and floods, resulting in a major effect on Indian foodgrain production (Parthasarathy and Pant, 1985; Parthasarathy et al., 1992; Selvaraju, 2003; Kumar et al., 2004) and on the economy of the Country (Gadgil et al., 1999a; Kumar and Parikh, 2001). Climatic variability and occurrence of extreme events are major concerns for the Indian subcontinent as they are inbuilt features under the projected climate change scenario. All the projections on climate change are based up on the General Circulation Models (GCMs). All the models project increase in temperature over the Country under different GHG emission scenarios. Rainfall variability is felt in different sub-meteorological divisions across the Country. Though the GCMs have been successful in depicting the gross features of the observed large scale climatological features, there is large uncertainty associated with these projections on regional scale, since the GCMs are yet to realistically reproduce the observed features at regional scale, particularly over the monsoon region (Kumar, et al., 2002). Several downscaling approaches are being used to derive the regional features from large scale model simulations. Under the projected climate change scenario, India will be one of the Countries facing the adverse impacts of climate change as agriculture is the mainstay of people of India. Hence, understanding of rainfall and temperature variability across the Country deserves attention in the projected climate change scenario.

Introduction
Climate change mitigation refers to the efforts and strategies to reduce or prevent the release of greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere to limit global warming and its subsequent impacts on ecosystems, human health, and economies. This process is critical to achieving the global climate targets set under frameworks like the Paris Agreement. Technology, particularly Information Technology (IT), has emerged as a vital tool in the fight against climate change, providing a range of solutions to monitor, manage, and mitigate the environmental impacts caused by human activities. IT-driven strategies enable real-time monitoring of environmental variables, optimising resource use, and developing innovative solutions across various energy, transportation, agriculture, and urban planning sectors.

11.1 Introduction

Agriculture sector contributes 19% to the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emission in India. Combined with land use change and forestry (LUCF), it is the second largest source of GHG emission in India. Initial efforts at dealing with the problem of global warming concentrated on mitigation, with the aim of reducing and possibly stabilizing the GHG concentrations in the atmosphere (UNFCCC, 1992). Even if this stabilization was achieved, sea level rise and global warming would continue to increase over centuries because of the inertia of the earth systems. Mitigation activities are traditionally employed as natural resources conservation measures, but they generally serve the dual purposes of reducing the emission of GHG from anthropogen sources, and enhancing carbon ‘‘sink’’. Forestry sector holds the key to the success of mitigation efforts, and has great potential to sequester carbon through reduced emissions from deforestation and degradation (REDD), afforestation and reforestation, and forest management. India’s vast area of croplands, through cropland management, could be an important area for sequestering carbon in soils. India being the largest producer of rice and livestock in the world, appropriate management can contribute to a reduction of methane emission from rice production and enteric fermentation.

Kerala, popularly known as the God’s own country, is situated at the southern tip of India between latitude range 8°15‘ N to 12°50’ N and 74°50’ E to 77°30’ E longitude. The State is graced with 44 rivers and numbers of streams and has rich biodiversity and tropical rain forests spread in 13 agro-ecological zones under humid tropics. Kerala is the Gateway of monsoon in India. Though Kerala is identified as Plantation State, the major staple food is rice. The annual rainfall in Kerala is about 2.7 times the national average. More or less assured amount of rainfall is being received in almost every year over the State, though inter-annual variability is felt more in recent decades. Uncertainties in rainfall are also felt much in the recent decades. Droughts during summer and floods during rainy season are frequent. Natural disasters like landslides/mud slips during rainy season are common across the mid and high lands of Kerala as the intensity of rainfall is high. Atmospheric temperature across the State is increasing. 1983 was a disastrous drought year in Kerala. The severe summer affected the State’s plantation crops economy to a considerable extent. Insignificant rainfall led to the severe summer drought during 1982–83.

Climate Change: Understanding our Earth and Atmosphere

Our Mother Earth is the fifth largest planet in the solar system and the third from the sun. It is also the sole planet whose name comes from old English language only, and not from names of any other celestial bodies, whose names originated mostly from Greek/Roman mythology. Earth has a diameter of 6378 km, of which the earth crust (uppermost skin) is only 24 km. Earth is the only planet where water exists as liquid and 71% of its surface is covered by water. The earth’s atmosphere is made up mostly of nitrogen (77%) and oxygen (21%) gases. CO₂ consists of a very small (trace) fraction (0.03%) of atmosphere, but is most vital for the life cycle. When earth was created, it has got much higher CO₂ than today, and all of them have been sequestered in rocks as carbonates and dissolved in oceans and a negligible amount is distributed in plant communities. This extremely small quantity of CO₂ is keeping life on earth, by maintaining earth’s temperature at a comfortable 14°C (without CO₂, earth’s temperature would have been -21°C). This effect is called the ‘greenhouse effect’, revolving which all issues of climate change exist. It is also to be noted that water vapour is also an important greenhouse gas (GHG). It is to also to be noted that in spite of substantial increase in solar constant, earth’s average temperature has remained stable for billions of years. It is understood that this was possible through variation in CO₂, and it is the biological processes (Earth biosphere) that controlled the environment over years (Gaia hypothesis).

Abstract

Climate is changing naturally at its own pace, since the beginning of evolution of earth, 4–5 billion years ago, but presently it has gained momentum due to inadvertent anthropogenic disturbances. Global climate is changing and it can have serious implications for our food security through its direct and indirect effects on crops, soils, live stocks, fisheries and pests. In the developing countries including India there has been relatively less attention paid to this topic in an integrated manner. Agriculture is the largest human activity in the world which depends on climatic parameters. We can manipulate soil, water and nutrient management practices but manipulation of climate is beyond our control. It influences crop-pest equilibrium. More than 50% differences in yield are due to climatic variation. Different causes of climate change are: A) Natural cause: Earth orbit, Global warming, Mountains, Sun, and Volcano. B) Anthropogenic cause: Global warming, Deforestation, Change in land use pattern. Climate change is a present reality and a major risk for future generations. Implementing energy conservation methods and utilizing renewable resource such as green power (power from moon, hydrogen fuel, nuclear power, sewage power, geothermal power and power of the mighty sun). Government should also encourage the use of mass transit; provide tax rebates for people who buy low and no pollution vehicles and subsidies to fossil fuels and the nuclear industries.

Introduction

The intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) which takes account of on historical, psychological, social , physical and economic and political perspectives of climate change in its report, released in November 2014 said that the Working Group I contribution to the IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) considers new evidence of climate change based on many independent scientific analyses from observations of the climate system, paleoclimate archives, theoretical studies of climate processes and simulations using climate models. Climate change is not controversial as naysayers and some media would convey. After decades of careful observation, collection of data, and tracking of changes in the climate system, there exists a solid, scientific consensus that human-caused climate change is a reality (Michael, 2012). In their report, the NCSE 2015 says that there is substantial scientific agreement about the occurrence, causes, and consequences of climate change. Yet due to the inherent complexity of the topic and the social controversies surrounding it, confusion and doubt often persist. Here, we need to develop the workforce, education, and training for climate-smart Agriculture. The following are some interventions.

The effects of global warming and/or climate change are of concern both for the environment and human life. Evidence of observed climate change includes the instrumental temperature record, rising sea levels, and decreased snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere. According to the IntergovernmentalPanel for Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report, “most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in [human greenhousegas] concentrations. It is predicted that futureclimate changes will include further globalwarming (i.e., an upward trendin global mean temperature), sea level rise, and a probable increase in the frequency of some extreme weather events. Ecosystems are seen as being particularly vulnerable to climate change. Human systems are seen as being variable in their capacity toadapt to future climate change. To reduce the risk of large changes in future climate, many countries have implemented policies designed to reducetheir emissions of greenhouse gas.

Climate change is one of the most pressing issues of our time, with far-reaching consequences for the environment, human health, and the economy. One of the most significant impacts of climate change is on the world’s water resources. Rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events are all taking a toll on the availability, quality, and management of water resources. Water is essential for human survival, and its availability and quality are crucial for human health, food security, and economic development. However, climate change is altering the hydrological cycle, leading to changes in precipitation patterns, increased evaporation, and altered water flows. These changes have significant implications on demand for water resources, including reduced water availability, decreased water quality, and increased risk of waterrelated disasters which will ultimately impact agricultural production and food security.
15.1. Changes in Precipitation Patterns
One of the most significant impacts of climate change on water resources is the alteration of precipitation patterns and projected per cent changes in average annual precipitation over 1850-1900 period at 2.00C increase in temperature are depicted here (Fig.15.1).

Introduction

Climate change, a global phenomenon of present time, has emerged as the greatest challenge of the world in the twenty-first century. Rising earth’s surface temperature is one of the most threatening factors coming into view. The substantial changes in the earth’s climate have an impact on ecosystems, economics and societies in a variety of ways (Sharma et al., 2024). It is one of the important environmental, agricultural, human and animal health issue. Climate change is an association of multidimensional effects involving physical characteristics, causes and consequences (Visschers, 2018). The climate change has resulted in to increasing global average temperature of air and ocean, melting of snow, rising of ocean level, change in the rainfall pattern and extreme whether events such as drought, flood, heat waves, storms etc.

Introduction

Climate change is one of the important areas of concern for world to ensure food and nutrition security to the growing population. The impacts of climate change are global but development countries like India are highly vulnerable as large population depends upon agriculture and allied service. As per the latest report, the global average temperature rises is 0.99⁰C (NASA, 2016) since pre-industrial time (1850). The year 2016 ranks as the warmest year, 16 of the 17 warmest years in the 136 years record all have occurred since 2001. The predicted temperature rise for India is in the range 0.5-1.2⁰C by 2020, 0.88-3.16⁰C by 2050 and 1.56-5.44⁰C by the year 2080. Studies in India showed significant negative impacts of climate change, predicted to reduce yields by 4.5 to 9.0%, depending on the magnitude and distribution of warming. Agriculture sector is contributing about 17.4% of India’s GDP, a 4.5-9.0% negative impact on production implies a cost of climate change to be roughly up to 1.5% GDP per year. Therefore, Govt. of India has accorded high priority on research and development to cope with the climate change in general and agriculture and allied sector. The Prime Ministers National Action Plan on Climate Change has Identified Agriculture and allied sector as one of the 8 national Missions. Agriculture and the future of global food security figure very importantly in climate change negotiations. As stated in Article II of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the goal is to ensure stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent “dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system”. With this background to meet the challenges of sustaining domestic food production in the face of changing climate and to generate information on adaptation and mitigation in agriculture to contribute to global for a like UNFCCC, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) launched a flagship network project National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) during XI plan in February 2011, and during XII Plan it is referred as National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA).

Introduction 
Chapter 15 provides a comprehensive analysis of climate change and its profound effects on agriculture and global food systems. This chapter delves into the science of climate change, focusing on its impacts on agricultural practices, climate-smart strategies, and the role of specialized climate change centers and institutes. The chapter begins with an exploration of the impacts of climate change on agriculture, detailing how shifts in temperature, precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events affect crop yields, livestock production, and overall agricultural productivity. It highlights the vulnerabilities of different agricultural systems and regions to climate change. Climate-smart agricultural practices are central to adapting to and mitigating the effects of climate change. This section covers adaptation strategies, such as adjusting planting dates, diversifying crops, and improving water management. It also addresses mitigation strategies, including reducing greenhouse gas emissions through sustainable farming practices and enhancing carbon sequestration in soils. Adaptation and mitigation strategies are discussed in detail, with an emphasis on how these approaches can be integrated to address climate change comprehensively. The interplay between adaptation (adjusting to changing conditions) and mitigation (reducing the root causes of climate change) is examined, emphasizing the need for balanced and coordinated efforts. The chapter underscores the importance of climate change centers and institutes in addressing food security. These institutions play a crucial role in research, policy development, and the implementation of climate-smart practices. They provide valuable data, tools, and guidance for managing the impacts of climate change on agriculture. The impact of climate change centers and institutes on global warming is analyzed, focusing on how these organizations contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing adaptive capacity. Their role in advancing climate science and supporting climate action is highlighted. Modern concepts in climate change centers and institutes are reviewed, showcasing innovative approaches and technologies that are shaping the field of climate science and its application to agriculture. The chapter concludes with strategies for combating food security and global warming challenges. It emphasizes the need for continued research, international collaboration, and the adoption of effective climate-smart practices to ensure sustainable agricultural systems and enhance global food security.

12.1 What is Climate Change?
 
The earth receives short-wave radiation from the sun, one-third of which is absorbed by the atmosphere, ocean, ice-land and living organisms. The energy absorbed from solar radiation is balanced, in the long-term, by the outgoing radiation from the earth and atmosphere. While short-wave radiation from the sun can easily pass through the atmosphere, the long-wave radiation emitted by the warm surface of the earth is partially absorbed by trace gases in the atmosphere called greenhouse gases’ (GHGs).

14.1. INTRODUCTION

The climate of a place is the average weather that is experiences over a period of time. It is the natural phenomenon that has occurred throughout the history of the earth. Climate change is strongly associated with higher temperature, altered precipitation, and higher levels of atmospheric CO₂ and other greenhouse gases. It is a very slow process; it takes a long time to settle in. Climate change in IPCC (2007) usage refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activities. Over the last 150-200 years the changes to our climate are happening more quickly now than they have ever done before in the geological past. Human activities have altered natural climatic processes at a geographically rapid pace by booting atmospheric concentrations of several greenhouse gasses. Following are the changes taken place over years of industrial age (IPCC, 2007):

INTRODUCTION

The debate on climate change is going on. From the report of the Inter Governmental Panel on climate change (IPCC), a premier organization set up in 1998 by the World Meteorological Organisation and United Nations Environment Programme, it is known that the average surface temperature has increased over the 20th century by about 0. 6ºC. The number may seem insignificant but it is an unprecedented rise. In the past 150 years, the 11 hottest years were witnessed. It says that 1990s was the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year since 1861. Worse, the Artic is warming twice as rapidly as the rest of the world and there is a distinct possibility of the Greenland Ice Sheet collapsing altogether and pushing up sea levels by several metres. It is predicted that 2035 is the year when Himalayan glaciers may totally disappear causing catastrophic disruptions. Unfortunately, India is among the countries that will suffer the most serious consequences as a result of global warming. Following is the probable effect of global warming.

Many aspects of the global climate are changing rapidly. Evidence for changes in the climate system abounds, from the top of the atmosphere to the depths of the oceans. The climate system is the highly complex system consisting of five major components; the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the land surface and the biosphere, and the interactions among them. The climate system evolves in time under the influence of its own internal dynamics and because of external forcings such as volcanic eruptions, solar variations and human-induced forcings such as the changing composition of the atmosphere and land-use.

The term ‘climate variability’ is often used to denote deviations of climatic statistics over a given period of time (e.g., a month, season or year) from the long-term statistics relating to the corresponding calendar period. In this sense, climate variability is measured by those deviations, which are usually termed anomalies.

‘Climate change’ refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer). Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings, or due to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. The United Nation’s Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines ‘climate change’ as ‘a change of climate behaviour which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods’. The UNFCCC thus makes a distinction between ‘climate change’ attributable to human activities altering the atmospheric composition, and ‘climate variability’ attributable to natural causes. Climate change is a long-term shift in weather conditions measured by changes in temperature, precipitation, wind, snow cover, and other indicators. It can involve both changes in average conditions and changes in variability, including, for example, changes in extreme conditions.

A key difference between climate variability and change is in persistence of ‘anomalous’ conditions. In other words, events that are used to be rare occur more frequently, or vice versa. Occasionally, an event or sequence of events occurs that has never been recorded before, such as the exceptional tsunami in the Indian Ocean in 2004 or hurricane season in the Atlantic in 2005. Yet even that could be a part of natural climate variability. If such a season does not recur within the next 30 years, by looking back it could be called as an exceptional year, but not a ‘climate change’. Only a persistent series of unusual events taken in the context of regional climate parameters can suggest that a potential change in climate has occurred.

8.1 Climate Change

Climate change is a broad term of global negative phenomena as created predominantly by burning of fossil fuels, which add heat-trapping gases to earth’s atmosphere. The over accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere lead to increased temperature and this is called as global warming. As a result, sea-level rise; ice mass loss in Greenland, Antarctica, Arctic and mountain glaciers worldwide; shifts in flowering/ plant blooming; and extreme weather events occur.

From the beginning of 18th century, the human activities started increasing gradually. Industrialization, increased use of petroleum products, deforestation, mining and increased use of chemicals have contributed to the pollution of natural resource base. The proportion of gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane etc started increasing in the atmosphere and more heat is getting trapped in the atmosphere leading to rise in atmospheric temperatures (Fig. 15.1).

The changes in atmosphere temperatures have led to changes in weather patterns. This changes in weather pattern triggered extreme situations like heat wave, cold wave, severe cyclonic activity, strong winds and hail storms, f loods and droughts of greater intensity creating new records.

Climate
This refers to the long-term statistical data of temperature, humidity, wind, precipitation, atmospheric particle count, and many other meteorological parameters in a particular area. However, weather refers to the current state of these same elements over a maximum of two weeks. The statistical long-term representation of the shortterm weather is called climate. A region’s “climate” is its average long-term weather. Temperature and readiness determine the climate. The variations between the average circumstances at two different times can be used to define changes in the climate. The atmosphere, seas, ice sheets (cryosphere), living things (biosphere), and soils, sediments, and rocks (geosphere) all contribute to and are a part of the global climate system.
When the sun falls on moisture droplets in the earth’s atmosphere, a spectrum of light appears in the sky, creating an optical and meteorological phenomenon known as a rainbow.
A wilderness is an area of the planet’s natural ecosystem that has not seen major alterations from human activities.
The atmosphere, a body of gases or air around the earth, shields it from harm and makes life possible. The planet’s atmosphere is primarily made up of nitrogen, with only 21% being oxygen; the remaining little portion is made up of carbon dioxide and other gases. The earth is divided into five separate layers, ranked from lowest to highest:

The greenhouse technology is all about the controlling of ambient climatic factors to create a favourable ‘micro-climate’ for the crop growth. The magnitude of such control may differ from minimal to maximum. It may control single (like rain) to multiple aspects (like rain, temperature, humidity, sun-light, wind, carbon-di-oxide, etc in combination). It can simply be done by manipulating natural factors using the suitable/appropriate design of the greenhouse or can be done in complex form by using/installing different devices and packages (may be software) with necessary automation in a specifically designed greenhouse.

It is a vast subject and very difficult to have a thumb-rule for such climate control mechanism due to seasonal climatic variations and most importantly due to the inter-relation effect between each and every climatic factors. Thus, it should be given sufficient space to maneuver the mechanism designed for a specific greenhouse targeting a specific crop.

Ways to control these climatic factors in a greenhouse

There are two basic ways to control the climate inside greenhouse.

Primarily, through a suitable design of the greenhouse itself, the inside microclimate can be controlled, obviously up to a certain level. Through manipulation of the design, particularly the naturally ventilated system, the rain water, temperature, humidity, CO_2, wind, etc can be controlled up to a certain level in favour of the crop.

Secondarily, by introducing equipments, tools, devices, etc we can control the micro-climate of a greenhouse. In most cases, it can take care of a number of climatic factors, like temperature and humidity, sun-light and temperature, etc simultaneously to provide a crop-wise micro-climate inside.

Frequently we use both the basic controlling methods, in combination, to achieve the required climate control system in a particular greenhouse.

We have already discussed about the different climatic factors that affect the crop micro-climate. Now we will discuss the basic control mechanism of each and every climatic factors and the related technology that can be utilized for greenhouse.

The climate crisis has emerged as one of the most pressing issues of our time, threatening the very foundations of our planet and its inhabitants. The scientific consensus is clear: human activities, particularly the emission of greenhouse gases, are significantly contributing to the rising global temperatures, devastating natural disasters, and unpredictable weather patterns. As the world grapples with the challenges posed by climate change, a critical question arises: is it a compromise or a compulsion to act? The climate crisis is a complex and multifaceted issue, requiring a comprehensive and collective response. On one hand, there are those who advocate for a compromise, suggesting that economic growth and development can be balanced with environmental concerns (Fig. 2.1). This approach emphasizes the need for gradual and incremental changes, allowing countries and industries to adapt to new regulations and technologies. Proponents of this view argue that a compromise is necessary to avoid economic disruption, ensure energy security, and promote international cooperation. Fig. 2.1. Eco-evolutionary feedback by carbon cycling traits, in response to climate change On the other hand, there are those who insist that the climate crisis demands a compulsion to act, requiring immediate, drastic, and collective action. This perspective emphasizes the urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, transition to renewable energy sources, and protect vulnerable communities from the impacts of climate change. Advocates of this view argue that the window for action is rapidly closing, and that anything less than a concerted and emergency response will condemn future generations to a catastrophic and unlivable world. The science unequivocally supports the latter perspective. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has warned that in order to limit global warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, global carbon emissions must reach net-zero by 2050. This requires a 45% reduction in emissions by 2030, and a complete phase-out of fossil fuels by 2050. The consequences of inaction are stark: more frequent and intense natural disasters, sea-level rise, water scarcity, food insecurity, and mass migration (Fig. 2.1).

12.1 Introduction
Having explored the dynamic realm of Numerical Weather Prediction, which focuses on forecasting the atmosphere’s state over days to weeks, we now shift our focus to a broader, longer-term perspective: Climate Data and Analysis. While weather describes the atmospheric conditions at a specific place and time, climate refers to the long-term average pattern of weather in a region, typically spanning decades or longer. Understanding and analyzing climate data is paramount for comprehending our planet’s past climate, identifying ongoing changes, and projecting future scenarios in a warming world. The study of climate is fundamentally data-driven. Unlike the instantaneous snapshots used in weather forecasting, climate analysis requires vast historical records, often extending back centuries or even millennia, to discern natural variability from human-induced changes. This data comes from a diverse array of sources, including instrumental records (thermometers, rain gauges, barometers), satellite observations, and proxy records (tree rings, ice cores, sediment layers) that provide indirect evidence of past climate conditions. The sheer volume and heterogeneous nature of this data present unique challenges and opportunities for analysis.
This chapter will delve into the essential aspects of climate data and the methodologies used to analyze it. We will begin by exploring the various types of climate data available, understanding their strengths, limitations, and how they are collected and curated. Crucially, we will examine how this data is used to characterize climate variability – the natural fluctuations within the climate system – and to detect climate trends, particularly those associated with global warming. We will introduce key climate indices that summarize large-scale atmospheric and oceanic patterns, providing simplified metrics for
understanding complex interactions.

Introduction

The animal husbandry and agriculture are the major resource of income for the farmers and directly affects the economic conditions of farmers. Livestock sector plays a vital role for livelihood food security in India. Buffalo plays an important role in dairy industry and contribute 49 per cent of total milk production in India (BAHS, 2017). Murrah is one of the best buffalo breeds in the world and also widely used for up-gradation of non-descript buffaloes in India. Murrah buffalo have poor thermoregulation mechanism compared to other domestic ruminants in tropical countries and are more prone to heat stress due to very less sweat glands, jet black colour and thin hairs on body surface (Das et al., 1999; Khongdee et al., 2013) which reduce the ability of cutaneous evaporation and largely responsible for its low productivity and consequently reducing the reproductive efficiency (Gudev et al., 2007). India continues to be the largest milk producer in the world since 1997. Milk production has increased from 165.4 million tonnes (2016-17) to 176.4 million tonnes (2017-18) (DAHD, GOI). The demand for milk is increasing at a very fast pace due to exponential population growth and the gap in the production and supply is increasing. Out of 300 million bovines, only 88 million are in milk leaving large unproductive animals including 84 million males (19th Livestock census, 2012). If the gap of production and supply is to be bridged, the large number of constraints that affect reproductive efficiency and productivity of dairy animals must be addressed effectively. One important factor that can contribute to the productivity of animals is qualitative production and quantitative adequacy of semen doses for A.I.

Abstract

Global warming is predicted to have significant effects in global potato production. Like many crops, potaoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide, temperature and precipitatiom, as well as interations between these factors. As well as affecting potatoes directly, climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests. Potato is one of the world’s most important food crops. Potato prodcution must be adapted to climate change to aviod reductions in crop yields. Potato plants and potato crop are predicted to benefit from increased carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere. The major benefit of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide for potatoes (and other plants) is an increase in thier photosynthetic rates which can increase their growth rates. Potato crop yields are also predicted to benefit because potates partition more starch to the ediable tubers under elevated carbon dioxides levels. Higher levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide also results in potatoes having to open thier stomata less to take up equal amount of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, which means loss through transpiration from stomata. As a result the water use efficiency (the amount of carbon assimilated per unit water lost) of potato plants is predicted to increase.

The pursuit of a dependable and abundant harvest stands as the cornerstone of sustainable agriculture. However, this pursuit is increasingly challenged by the growing complexities and uncertainties of our changing climate. Chapter 9, “Harnessing Climate Intelligence for Assured Harvest,” delves into the critical role of climate analysis in navigating these challenges and securing predictable yields. This chapter outlines a strategic approach to achieving “assured harvest” by effectively leveraging “climate intelligence.” This intelligence encompasses a deep understanding of historical climate patterns, real-time weather monitoring, and future climate projections. By strategically analyzing this wealth of information, we can move beyond reactive measures towards proactive and informed decisionmaking across the agricultural lifecycle. Our strategy to harness climate intelligence for assured harvest will focus on several key pillars:
• Deciphering Climate Variability and Change: We will explore the nuances of both short-term weather fluctuations and long-term climate trends, identifying their specific impacts on crop growth, development, and potential losses. This involves understanding critical parameters like temperature, rainfall, humidity, solar radiation, and the frequency of extreme weather events relevant to specific crops and geographical regions.
• Assessing Climate-Related Risks: A crucial element of this strategy involves identifying and quantifying the risks posed by climate variability and change. This includes analyzing the probability and potential severity of events like droughts, floods, heatwaves, cold spells, and shifts in pest and disease patterns.
• Developing Climate-Smart Agricultural Practices: Armed with a robust understanding of climate risks, this chapter will explore a range of climatesmart agricultural practices designed to mitigate these risks and enhance resilience. This encompasses strategies related to crop selection, optimized planting and harvesting schedules, water management, soil health improvement, and integrated pest and disease management.
• Leveraging Technological Advancements: The power of climate intelligence is amplified by advancements in technology. We will examine the role of remote sensing, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), precision agriculture tools, and sophisticated weather forecasting systems

Climate normals for crops and livestock refer to the long-term average weather conditions, such as temperature, precipitation, and humidity that are suitable for specific crops and livestock in a particular region. These normals help farmers and agricultural planners understand the typical climate conditions that support optimal growth, productivity, and health of crops and livestock. By knowing the climate normals, farmers can make informed decisions about:
• Crop selection and breeding
• Planting and harvesting schedules
• Livestock management and breeding
• Irrigation and water management
• Pest and disease management
15.0. Crop Weather Calendars
A Crop Weather Calendar (CWC) is a valuable agrometeorological tool used to align the crop growth stages with prevailing weather conditions to optimize agricultural practices. It helps farmers, extension workers, and planners make informed decisions by integrating weather information with the crop‘s physiological needs (Fig. 15.1).

Climate normals for crops and livestock refer to the long-term average weather conditions, such as temperature, precipitation, and humidity that are suitable for specific crops and livestock in a particular region. These normals help farmers and agricultural planners understand the typical climate conditions that support optimal growth, productivity, and health of crops and livestock. By knowing the climate normals, farmers can make informed decisions about:
• Crop selection and breeding
• Planting and harvesting schedules
• Livestock management and breeding
• Irrigation and water management
• Pest and disease management
15.1. Crop Weather Calendars
A Crop Weather Calendar (CWC) is a valuable agrometeorological tool used to align the crop growth stages with prevailing weather conditions to optimize agricultural practices. It helps farmers, extension workers, and planners make informed decisions by integrating weather information with the crop‘s physiological needs (Fig. 15.1).

Climate change exposes onion production to irregular rainfall, heat, drought, flooding and increasing pest and disease pressure. These stresses can reduce yield, damage bulb quality, increase storage losses and threaten smallholder livelihoods. This chapter uses research literature and case studies to examine resilience at farm, community and supply-system levels. It emphasizes location-specific varieties, crop rotation, micro-irrigation, efficient input use, digital forecasting, protected production, improved storage and reliable cold chains. Farmer organizations, extension services, subsidies and supportive institutions are also important. Sustainable onion farming requires agronomic, technological, socioeconomic and policy measures to function together, enabling growers to adapt to climatic uncertainty while conserving resources and maintaining profitability.

Abstract
Global food production needs to double by 50% by the middle of the 21st century to ensure food and nutritional security for 9 billion people. Climate change, particularly atmospheric CO2 and temperature, has a complex impact on sustainable food security. Climate change is a significant constraint on legume production globally, which is a crucial food, feed, and fodder source. Legumes fix atmospheric nitrogen through bacteria in root nodules, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and boosting soil C-sequestration. Climate change positively impacts grain legumes by allowing them to allocate above-ground
photosynthates into below-ground parts (nodules), improving rhizospheres’ activities, plant biomass and nutrient use efficacy. However, temperature can also negatively affect grain legumes, leading to flower abortion and abnormal pod filling. However, climate models predict more extreme events in the future, affecting legume growth and development. Heat stress, elevated CO2 concentration, drought, and rainfall variability impact legume crop production, requiring adaptation options. Results show that legumes with C3 fixation pathways show higher photosynthesis, reduced photorespiration, biomass production, and water use efficiency under atmospheric CO2. However, temperature increases lead to faster development, shorter life cycles, and lower yields. Legumes can cope with atmospheric CO2 up to
1000 ppm by storing sucrose and starch. Protein synthesis and water stress also help legumes adapt to changing climates. To achieve targeted yields in changing climatic conditions, agronomic and genetic interventions must be integrated. Targeted breeding programs should select high-yielding, biotic stress-resistant, and abiotic stress-tolerant genotypes adapted to atmospheric CO2 and temperature conditions. Integrating grain legumes with desirable traits can provide resilience against climate change.
Keywords: Climate change, Grain legumes, Nutritional security, Resilience, Rhizosphere, Water Use Effciency

Climate-resilient agriculture involves the use of practices, technologies, and approaches that can help to reduce the risks associated with climate change, while also promoting sustainable agriculture and improving the livelihoods of farmers and rural communities. This can include a range of strategies, such as the use of climate-tolerant crop and animal varieties, agroforestry practices, conservation agriculture, and integrated water management. Climate-resilient agriculture can also involve the use of innovative technologies, such as precision agriculture, drones, and satellite imaging, to support decision-making and improve the efficiency of agricultural systems. This chapter outlines the principles and priorities for climate-resilient agriculture, with a focus on the key strategies and approaches that can help to promote sustainable agriculture and reduce the vulnerability of agricultural systems to climate change. The chapter draws on examples and case studies from around the world, highlighting the importance of adopting a holistic and integrated approach to climate-resilient agriculture that takes into account the social, economic, and environmental dimensions of sustainable agriculture. By outlining the principles and priorities for climate-resilient agriculture (Fig. 5.1), this chapter aims to provide a framework for policymakers, practitioners, and other stakeholders to promote sustainable agriculture and reduce the vulnerability of agricultural systems to climate change

Climate change is a long-lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather pattern triggered by greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. It is caused by natural factors like continental drift, volcanoes, earth’s tilt, and ocean current or manmade factors like urbanization, industrialization, burning of fossil fuel, deforestation and faulty agricultural practices.

Climate change refers to a change of climate that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and that is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods (FCCC).

Overall, climate change could result in a variety of impacts on agriculture. Some of these effects are biophysical, some are ecological, and some are economic, including:

• A shift in climate and agricultural zones towards the poles
• Changes in production patterns due to higher temperatures
• A boost in agricultural productivity due to increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
• Changing precipitation patterns
• Increased vulnerability of the landless and the poor

Climate change impacts on agriculture are being witnessed all over the world, but countries like India are more vulnerable in view of the high population that depends on agriculture and excessive pressure on natural resources. The warming trend in India over the past 100 years (1901 to 2007) was observed to be 0.51°C with accelerated warming of 0.21oC per every 10 years since 1970 (Kumar, 2009). The projected impacts are likely to further aggravate the yield fluctuations of many crops with impact on food security and prices. Climate change impacts are likely to vary in different parts of the country. Parts of western Rajasthan, Southern Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Northern Karnataka, Northern Andhra Pradesh and Southern Bihar are likely to be more vulnerable in terms of extreme events (Mall et al., 2006).

Introduction
Agriculture lies at the heart of human civilization, providing sustenance and driving economic growth. However, in the 21st century, this essential sector faces unprecedented challenges. Among these, climate change looms as the most pressing, threatening to disrupt global food security. With rising temperatures, erratic rainfall patterns, and increasing incidences of droughts and floods, agricultural productivity is under severe strain. Global crop yields are forecasted to decline by up to 25% in some regions if climate change remains unchecked (IPCC, 2021; Lobell et al., 2011). At the core of climate-resilient agriculture lies the ability to breed crops capable of withstanding environmental stresses. This chapter aims to explore how climate-resilient breeding is the future of agriculture. We will review the potential of genomics-assisted breeding (GAB), advances in CRISPR/Cas genome editing, the exploitation of crop biodiversity, and the integration of automated technologies for the development of resilient crops (FAO, 2019; Tester & Langridge, 2010).
Climate Change and its Impact on Agriculture
1. Temperature Stress: One of the most direct impacts of climate change on agriculture is the rise in global temperatures. Many crops, such as rice, wheat, and maize, are highly sensitive to heat stress, particularly during their flowering and grain-filling stages. Studies have shown that a 1°C increase in temperature can result in a 10-20% reduction in yields for several crops (Wheeler et al., 2020). For instance, wheat production could decrease by 6% for every degree of temperature rise (Asseng et al., 2015). Additionally, high temperatures increase evapotranspiration, leading to water deficits and worsening drought conditions in many regions (Boyer, 1982).

Milk, meat, eggs and their products have been the important part of the human diet in almost all countries of the world. These are highly nutritious and provide vital nutrients absent in typical starchy staples which dominate poor people’s diets. On global scale, animal meat, egg and milk provide 80% of animal protein intake.

The livestock sector requires a significant amount of natural resources and is responsible for about 14.5% of total anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (7.1 Gigatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalents for the year 2005). Methane, mainly produced by enteric fermentation and manure storage, is a gas which has an effect on global warming 28 times higher than carbon dioxide. Nitrous oxide, arising from manure storage and the use of organic/inorganic fertilizers, is a molecule with a global warming potential 265 times higher than carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide equivalent is a standard unit used to account for the global warming potential. Mitigation strategies aimed at reducing emissions of this sector are needed to limit the environmental burden from food production while ensuring a sufficient supply of food for a growing world population.