eChapters

5.1 Introduction

The application of chemical pesticides is crucial in horticultural production, but it is also one of the most hazardous agricultural operations. Overapplication can lead to significant environmental concerns. Spraying is vital for reducing harvest losses and improving productivity. According to Cho et al.,(2012), 30-35% of production damages can be prevented by reducing harmful insects and diseases through spraying. Plant protection is essential for ensuring yield quantity and quality. Effective pesticide use is crucial, as excessive application can lead to pests developing immunity, destruction of beneficial insects and natural pest enemies, and increased harmful insect populations. Excessive pesticide use also disrupts pollination, preventing fruit formation. The method of pesticide application is key to targeting the correct quantity and quality, reducing environmental contamination, and increasing sustainability (Abbas et al., 2020). Site-specific application rates in precision horticulture can decrease pesticide use. Only 30-40% of pesticides typically reach their targets, with most lost to the environment, contaminating workers and causing pollution. Protecting plants with chemicals aims to prevent infections and ensure healthy growth.

Spray drift can harm non-target plants and contaminate watercourses, posing a severe and costly problem for horticultural farmers using air-assisted variable sprayers (Seol et al., 2022). Spray drift refers to airborne spray droplets moving beyond the intended application area from aerial or ground-based methods. Studies have found that a significant portion of pesticides is lost to the air and ground, with up to 30-50% of the applied pesticides being lost through various means (Abbas et al., 2020). Modern trends emphasize the importance of sensors and precision agriculture for effective pesticide use. Understanding tree canopy physical features is crucial for effective spray application. This study focuses on recognizing and geometrically classifying canopies for adequate pesticide protection. Variable rate spraying targets only the canopy, enhancing pesticide application efficiency (Rathnayake et al., 2022). Electronic methods and innovative equipment reduce operational and environmental costs. Sensors tracking canopy characteristics and spacing ensure optimal use of inputs, promoting sustainability.

6.1 Introduction

Perennial crops are crucial for maintaining food security, despite making up only 4.2–4.7% of all agricultural acreage (Kreitzman et al., 2020). The value of fruit and nut production reached a value of USD 823 billion globally in 2020, with the top five fruit crops being apples (87 Mt), oranges (78 Mt), grapes (77 Mt), mangoes (55 Mt), and apricots (41 Mt) (Statista, 2020). The tree nut business is growing quickly, although making up a smaller share of the world’s agricultural output. Global tree nut output is expected to reach 4.2 Mt in 2019–2020, with almonds, cashews, walnuts, hazelnuts, and pistachios accounting for 31%, 17%, 21%, 12%, and 14% of the nut market share, respectively (Serna, 2020).

Tree crops require a longer investment period before producing a commercial yield; sweet cherry takes three years to attain a commercial yield, while pistachio takes ten (Rezaei et al., 2019). High-density monocultures of cultivars chosen for their potential yield, fruit quality, and disease resistance are part of optimal tree crop production techniques. These monocultures are maintained under intensive, high-input farming systems (Simon et al., 2017). However, inadequate pollination can seriously impair the quantity and quality of these agricultural products, prompting for meticulous dedication to pollination research and management (Bosch et al., 2021; Forbes et al., 2019).

Effective pollination, and on the contrary, situations in which pollination is restricted or deficient, depend on both internal and external factors (Figure 7.1, Table 7.1). The period of stigma receptivity, the lifespan of the ovule, and the quality and availability of compatible, suitable pollen are all considered as intrinsic factors (Howlett et al., 2015). Agronomic methods pertaining to plant nutrition, orchard layout, pest and disease control, pollinator activity, pollen quality, and weather patterns and their effects on flowering synchrony are examples of extrinsic factors(Toledo-Hernandez et al., 2017). Hatfield and Prueger assert that pollination is one of the phenological stages that is most sensitive to temperature, and as such, it has a significant impact on productivity (Hatfield and Prueger, 2015). Climate has been shown to be a key factor in determining pollination success and production in crops including peaches, apples, and almonds.

7.1 Introduction

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the imitation of human intellect in machines designed to emulate human activities and cognitive functions. These machines are designed to accomplish tasks that normally require human intellect, such as learning, problem solving, perception, and decision-making (Zhang et al., 2022). Horticultural crops, including fruits, vegetables, nuts, and ornamental plants, are of paramount importance in global agriculture, as they contribute significantly to food security, economic prosperity, and environmental sustainability. Nevertheless, the cultivation of these crops poses numerous challenges for growers, such as fluctuating market demand, insufficient resources, unpredictable climate conditions, and the constant threat of pests and diseases (Nowak & Grant, 2018). In recent years, the agricultural sector has experienced a significant shift owing to advancements in Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies (Liakos et al., 2018). AI has emerged as a powerful tool for the cultivation of horticultural crops, providing solutions for boosting productivity, sustainability, and efficiency (Shrivastava & Kumar, 2021). By utilizing AI, horticulturists can overcome the traditional challenges associated with crop management, resource allocation, and environmental sustainability, paving the way for a more resilient and productive agricultural sector (Garg et al., 2019). The integration of AI into horticultural crop production encompasses a diverse range of applications, including precision agriculture, crop monitoring and management, predictive analytics, automated harvesting, and genetic improvement (Golhani et al., 2018). These applications leverage machine learning algorithms, remote sensing technologies, and data analytics to analyze vast amounts of agricultural data ranging from soil composition and weather patterns to crop health and market trends (Araus& Cairns, 2014). Through intelligent data-driven insights, AI enables farmers to make informed decisions in real-time, optimize resource utilization, minimize waste, and maximize yields (Kamilaris et al., 2017). This technological convergence offers promising prospects for food production, enabling stakeholders to explore new avenues for growth, resilience, and sustainability in horticultural crop cultivation (Mohanty et al., 2016).

Seed is the primary and most critical input in any crop production programme. A quality seed alone contributes around 15-20% towards total production. The efficacy of all other inputs to increase production will be in vain if the quality of the seed is poor. Hence, use of quality seed is crucial as it appreciably increase the productivity of the crop without depending much on other inputs. This adds to the old saying in Manu Smriti good seed in good field yield abundantly .A quality seed can be defined as genetically and physically pure seeds with high germination percentage, free from seed borne pathogens and safe moisture content. This guarantees good germination, vigorous growth, and good establishment of crop in the field.

History of Seed Industry in India

Farmers dependent mostly on traditional indigenous varieties earlier and its seed requirements were met through their own farm saved seeds or through local sources. But the quality of these seed stocks was not assured, and this resulted in drastic reduction in production as well as productivity of the crops. As a result of various crop improvement programmes, improved varieties possessing high yield potential along with additional characters of biotic and abiotic resistance came into the scenario. But the availability of the seeds of these improved varieties among the farmers remained as a problem and it limited the cultivation of these varieties. This led to the development of a well-planned systemized seed production system. Government of India had framed and brought out different legislations for regulating systemized seed production. These laws are framed to make available quality seeds and planting materials to a common farmer and equip him to approach authority for justice. Seed legislations were initiated in the country by establishment of National Seed Corporation (NSC) during 1963 under Ministry of Agriculture and the seed industry was restructured through the nationals seed projects phase I (1977-78), Phase II (1978-79) and Phase III (1990-1991). These initiatives strengthened the seed industry through formulation of seed regulations, establishment of state seed corporations and seed certification agencies thereby assured the supply of quality seeds to farmers

Technically, seed is the sexually produced matured ovule consisting of an intact embryo, endosperm and or cotyledon with protective covering (seed coat). A true seed consist of an embryonic plant, a store of food which consists of cotyledons and endosperm and a protective seed coat. Seed can also be considered as any material that is used for planting or regeneration purpose. Rather than seed, propagating materials like healthy seedlings, tuber, bulbs, rhizome, roots, cuttings, setts, slips, all types of grafts and vegetatively propagating materials used for production purpose is also referred to as seed. Thus, seeds are of two types namely sexual or botanical seed and asexual seed. Both can be used for raising the crops thus forms the agricultural seeds.

Based on the moisture content present, seeds are of two types, orthodox seeds and recalcitrant seeds. Orthodox seeds are the botanical seeds which contain moisture content less than 20%. Such seeds do not germinate even if the moisture content is more than 20% unless artificially forced to germinate. Recalcitrant seeds contain moisture content more than 20% and such seeds will not germinate if moisture content is less than 20%. These seeds cannot be stored for long and for long storage, special structures or conditions are required. Mostly perennial plant species produce this type of seeds.

The horticulture sector of our country is following an increased growth in area and production by 9% and 14 % respectively for the past six years (2015-21). It is reported that the growth rate of horticultural crop production accounts for 2.7% per year. Fruits and vegetables are the major sectors contributing to total horticulture production. As per the report of second advance estimates published by Horticulture statistics division, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare during 2020-21, our country recorded the highest horticulture production during 2020-21 with an annual production of 329. 86 million tonnes from an area of 27.23 million hectares and the vegetable sector shared around 196.26 million tonnes production from 10.80 million hectare area. India is the largest producer of okra and ginger and second largest producer of potato, onion, cauliflower, brinjal, cabbage etc. Vegetables also contribute to the export market and onion, mixed vegetables, potatoes, tomato and green chilli are the main vegetables exporting from our country. It is estimated an export of worth Rs. 4969.73 crores from vegetables during the year 2020-21.

Importance of Vegetable Seed Production

Though we are leading in many of the vegetables in area and production, our national average in productivity of the major vegetables is far less compared to the world average. The country s estimated vegetable production by the year 2050 is 375 million tonnes from 15 million hectare with an average productivity of 25 t/ha. Low productivity is mainly because the farmers are still relying on old varieties which are less yielding and susceptible to pest and disease. Unavailability of the quality seeds of newly released varieties is one of the main reasons for this production gap. A substantial increase in yield and quality of vegetable crops can be achieved by adopting suitable agronomic practices, plant protection measures and use of quality seed. Now a days, there is an increased demand for good quality seeds of open pollinated varieties as well as hybrid seeds through which an increased vegetable production can be achieved for meeting the requirement of increasing population. So far, very limited number of vegetable hybrids have been developed and released by public sectors and majority of the existing promising hybrids in vegetables are from private sectors.

It involves all the steps starting from the extraction till sowing that makes the seed a high quality product for distribution among the farmers for a profitable crop. It reduces the spoilage during storage, increase the shelf life of the seeds, guarantees good germination and field stand thereby reduces the risk of losing the crop at early stages.

Seed Extraction

The seed extraction methods vary with the stage at which the matured fruits are harvested for seed extraction. Some of the vegetable crops are harvested at well ripe stage while some others are harvested at mature dry stage. Proper extraction should be selected taking into consideration the easiness of seed extraction from the fleshy pulp, relatively more seed recovery and less damage to the quality of seeds. There are different methods of seed extraction includes manual method, fermentation method, chemical method and mechanical method.

Manual Method

The manual method of seed extraction varies depending on the harvested fruit type. There are two types of seed extraction in vegetable crops viz., dry extraction and wet extraction.

1. Dry extraction Method

Dry extraction method is following in vegetables where mature dry fruits or mature dried pods are harvested for seed extraction. The harvested dried fruits are kept in sun for 2-3 days. The dried fruits are split open and the seeds are extracted by beating with pliable bamboo stick or by beating against a hard surface. Heavy beating should be avoided to reduce mechanical injury to the seed. Excessive mechanical injury may result in lowering of seed viability. The extracted seeds are dried in the sun between 8.00-11.00 am and 2.00-5.00 pm to reduce the moisture content to a safe level. This is followed in crops like chilli, okra, sponge gourd, ridge gourd, french bean, lablab bean, cow pea, cluster bean etc.

Solanaceae is a plant family that comprising of 2300 species and 85 genera of which, nearly one half of the species belongs to the genus Solanum. The genus Solanum includes both tuber bearing and tuber nonbearing forms. Among the tuber nonbearing forms, the major fruit vegetables growing throughout the world are tomato, brinjal and chilli. They prefer warm humid tropical climate for growth and development. Hence, the agroclimatic regions where this type of climate prevails is suitable for seed production of these vegetables. In addition to this, hybrid vigour has been widely commercially exploited in these crops because of easiness in emasculation and pollination and availability of large number of hybrid seeds per fruit.

Tomato (Solanum esculentum L.)

Tomato is the most important warm season vegetable growing throughout the world. The fruit is valued as salad vegetable and for cooking purpose. It is one of the vegetables from which, a wide variety of processed products are made. The crop is grown throughout the year in one part or other part of the country and it has become one of the indispensable fruit vegetables in our diet. It is rich in vitamin A, vitamin C, niacin, and minerals like calcium, phosphorus etc and it is rich in antioxidant, lycopene which is the carotenoid responsible for the red colour of tomato. Tomato is of recent origin, and it is the native of Peru in South America from where it spread to the entire part of the world.

Cucurbits account for the largest group of tropical vegetables, consisting of cucumber, muskmelon, bitter gourd, bottle gourd, ridge gourd, sponge gourd, snake gourd, pointed gourd, bitter gourd, ivy gourd, wax or ash gourd, chow chow or chayote, pumpkin, summer squash, winter squash, watermelon etc. They all belongs to the family Cucurbitaceae. They are herbaceous in nature and are characterized by tendril-bearing vines and adaptation to warm climate of the tropics and subtropics. Among the different genera of cucurbit vegetables, three genera viz., Cucumis (cucumbers, melons), Cucurbita (pumpkins, squash), and Citrullus (watermelons), are economically important in the world while the others hold regional importance. Most of the cucurbits are grown for its immature fruits and are consumed as salads or cooked vegetable. While, muskmelon and watermelon are used fresh as dessert fruits. Pumpkin and squashes are used in confectionaries besides as cooked vegetables. Mature ash gourd fruits are used in sweet candy preparation.

Cucurbits are low in calories, minerals, or vitamins. However, bitter gourd is rich source of vitamin C, the squash, pointed gourd, and muskmelon contain good amounts of carotene, kakrol is high in protein, and pointed gourd is rich in calcium. Bitterness in some species of cucurbits was attributed by the varying degree of bitter principles, cucurbitacin. Bitter gourd is known for its hypoglycemic activity due to phytoceutical, cheratin in the fruit, which lowers blood sugar level.

Okra is a tropical vegetable cultivating for its tender fruits. It is one of the major vegetable crops in India which can be grown in summer as well as rainy season. Fruits are rich in vitamin A, vitamin C and minerals like calcium, phosphorus, iodine, iron, and potassium. Dry fruit skins and fibers are valued for manufacture of paper and card boards. The processed product, dehydrated okra plays a considerable role in export earnings. Dried seeds of okra found to have 20-24 percent protein and 13-22% edible oil hence, used for edible oil production. Mucilaginous stem is used for clarification of cane juice for preparing jaggery. Roasted ground seed are used as coffee substitute.

Cultivated okra is believed to be originated in tropical and subtropical Africa and phytogeographic studies indicated that it arose in Abyssinian region (Ethiopia). However, existence of large number of related species with wide variability and dominant characters suggested India as the secondary centre of origin. Some researchers suggested Hindustani centre of origin mainly India, Pakistan, & Burma.

Morphology and Pollination

Okra is an erect robust herbaceous annual with green or green with reddish tinged stem. Leaves are alternate, 3-7 lobbed, palmate, hirsute and serrate. Flowers are solitary, bisexual, axillary, peduncle is 2 cm long, epicalyx is up to 10 and bracteoles narrow and hairy. Calyx is fused with corolla hence falls with corolla after anthesis. Petals are 5, separate, yellow coloured with crimson spot on claw. Staminal column consists of numerous stamens (80-120) which are united to the base of the petals. Ovary is superior, stigma is small, 5-8 fid and deep red. Fruit is pyramidal and oblong beaked capsule, longitudinally furrowed, hirsute or glabrous, dehisce longitudinally when ripe. Seeds are dark green to dark brown, round and tuberculate.

Leguminous vegetables include wide range of vegetables which can grow in climatic conditions extending from warm to cool weather. They are rich in protein, essential amino acids and fibre hence, recognized as an important component in ensuring nutritional security. They are growing for its pods for vegetable purpose, seeds as pulse or for dual purpose. They are excellent green manures that fix atmospheric nitrogen into soil and cultivation of leguminous vegetable crops is recommended as an integral component in sustainable soil fertility management. Leguminous vegetables include tropical types namely cowpea, hyacinth bean, winged bean, jack bean, sword bean while, cool season legumes include French bean, garden peas, lima bean and broad bean. They are mostly self-pollinated owing to its cleistogamous flowers. Pole or bush types are available in these crops and all are seed propagated. Among the different leguminous crops, French bean, garden peas and cowpea are under commercial cultivation while other leguminous vegetables are region specific in cultivation.

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)

Cowpea is a warm season legume grown both as vegetable crop as well as pulse crop. Tender pods are used as vegetable and dry beans are used as pulse. Cowpea is mainly growing for its seeds as pulse than as vegetable crop. The vegetable types bear stringless pods of more than 30 cm long, fleshy pericarp and higher monosaccharide to polysaccharide ratio. Cowpea is believed to be originated and domesticated in West or Central Africa especially Nigeria where diversity was noticed abundant. The cultivated cowpea, Vigna unguiculata is divided into different cultivar groups viz., pulse type as Vigna unguiculata var. unguiculata, Vigna unguiculata var. cylindrica or var. biflora as dual purpose type for fodder and dry seeds and vegetable type as Vigna unguiculata var. sesquipedalis (yardlong bean/string bean/asparagus bean). The cultivar groups, biflora and sesquipedalis are suggested to be originated from ssp. unguiculata in India and South East Asia respectively.

Cole crops refers to vegetable crops originated from a common ancestor, colewort or wild cliff cabbage (B. oleraceae var oleraceae or Brassica sylvestris L.) and they belong to family Brassicaceae. They prefer low temperature for growth and development hence mainly grown as temperate vegetables in temperate and subtropical climatic zones. This group of vegetable includes cabbage, cauliflower, knol khol, brussels sprout, sprouting broccoli, kale, Chinese cabbage etc. They are Mediterranean vegetables since its centre of origin is considered to be Mediterranean region. Later on, it spread into different parts of the temperate and subtropical countries. In India, cultivation of cole crops was started in the hills where temperate climate prevails and in states like Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Maharashtra and Karnataka as cool season crop. But with the introduction of tropical types which are more tolerant to high temperature cultivation, cole crops are taking new pace in the cropping system of nontraditional areas. Cabbage and cauliflower became the most widely grown cole crops though cabbage, knol khol and curly kale were the first cultivated types and cauliflower came in the mid-way followed by brussels sprout and sprouting broccoli. The genetic designation of different vegetables under cole crops were described by several workers of which Linnaeus (1753) designated all the cole crops under one species, Brassica oleraceae and in 1969, Neuwhof classified them into different forms as B oleracea var capitata L. (cabbage); B oleracea var botrytis L. (cauliflower); B oleracea var gemmifera DC. (Brussels sprout); B oleracea var italica L. (sprouting broccoli); B oleracea var gongyloides L. (knol khol) and B oleracea var acephala DC. (kale).

Cole crops are usually biennial herbs with tap root system and erect stem. They are highly cross-pollinated and temperature sensitive for the production of head and curd. They are classified as early, mid and late varieties based on the temperature requirement and duration. Among this, early varieties are found to be high temperature tolerant and late varieties are low temperature tolerant. The flowering in cole crops requires a chilling temperature of 4-70C for about 6 8 weeks which transforms the juvenile phase into reproductive stage with exceptions of some early varieties of cauliflower and sprouting broccoli. Upon receiving the chilling temperature, the central stalk will develop into reproductive shoot or multiple reproductive shoots will be formed from the curd. The earlier is seen in cabbage, brussels sprout and kale whereas, the latter in cauliflower and sprouting broccoli. The seed production of cole crops belonging to temperate groups are mostly undertaken in temperate hills especially in the hills of Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh whereas, seeds of tropical types are produced in plains and lower hills of India.

Bulb Crops

Bulb crops are cool season vegetables that are grown during the winter months in plains. They are mainly growing for its fleshy leaf bases or fleshy axillary buds or blanched stem and leaves. Major bulb crops that are widely cultivating in our country comprises of onion, garlic and leek. They possess a characteristic odour due to the presence of volatile oil, allyl propyl disulphide (onion) and diallyl disulphide (garlic). They are either seed propagated as in onion and leek or through cloves as in garlic or through bulblets in multiplier onion. Seed propagated bulb crops are annual for bulb production and biennial for seed production. Seed production of bulb crops can be undertaken in plains especially in the central part of the country and southern plains whereas, northern plains hold the problems of Stemphylium and purple blotch during the seed crop and subsequent lower seed yield makes northern plains unfit for seed production. But these areas can be utilized for seed production by following the delayed planting of seed crop and avoiding the climate favouring the diseases.

Onion (Allium cepa)

Onion is a popular vegetable grown for its pungent bulbs. Bulbs are consumed as raw vegetable, as cooked vegetable or in preserved forms. Onion is reported to be originated in Central Asia and Mediterranean region is considered as the secondary centre of origin. It is adapted to a wide range of climate and it is being cultivated in India in three seasons viz., kharif, late kharif and rabi. India is having the largest area under onion cultivation in the world. It is also contributing substantially towards the export of the value-added products from our country. White or yellow onions are commonly using for producing dehydrated products whereas, the red ones are more preferred for direct consumption.

Root crops are cool season vegetables growing for its fleshy root developed from the tap root and hypocotyl region. They are grown during winter in tropical and subtropical condition, throughout the year in hills and spring-summer in high altitude hills. The major root crops growing in our country include carrot (Umbelliferae), radish (Brassicaceae), beet root (Chenopodiaceae) and turnip (Brassicaceae). Two distinct types viz., asiatic or tropical types and European types present in these root crops except beet root. In beet root, European or biennial types only exist. The tropical types are annuals that does not require chilling treatment for flowering. Therefore, seed production of these types is taken up in plains but European types are biennials and they require vernalization treatment after vegetative phase for flowering. Hence, the seed production of biennial types is possible in hills. The seed productions of Asiatic varieties of root crops are done in Punjab, Haryana, U.P. and parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat. Whereas, the seed production of temperate varieties is done in Saproon valley, Kullu valley, Kalpa valley of H.P., Kashmir valley of J&K and selected location of Northeast region specially Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. The seed production of beet root is being done in high altitude hills of J&K. All the crops belonging to this group are similar in the cultural practices though they come under different family. All root crops prefer well drained loose and friable soil. Ridge or bed planting is mainly following in all root crops. They are direct sown crops and does not respond to transplanting. They are highly cross pollinated.

The two methods of seed production following in root crops are seed-to-seed method and root-to-seed method. The first method is followed for the production of truthfully labelled seed or certified seed as the seed yield will be more, but quality remains inferior to the second method. The breeder seed as well as foundation seeds require utmost quality hence root-to-seed is preferred for its production. In this method, the matured roots are harvested and the roots are inspected for its trueness. Only true-to-type roots are selected for replanting in the field for seed production and undesirable ones are discarded. The selection and rouging in seed crop are done on the basis of foliage characters and external and internal root characters (colour, shape, size, flesh colour, core size, pungency, indistinct rings etc.). The roots after selection are prepared for replanting by cutting one-third top (shoot) portion and one-fourth to one-half root cut. the prepared stecklings are replanted to obtain good yield of quality seeds. In case of turnip and beet, after selection, the tap root and tops of the roots are trimmed without injuring the crown portion and is replanted.

Potato, the third most important food crop in the world after rice and wheat is becoming the main source of food and income in developing countries. India stands second in production and area of potato in world after China leaving behind the Russian Federation. In India, potato is an important component in cereal and vegetable-based cropping systems for its ability to produce high dry matter/ha in short duration and high yield compared to cereals. It is grown as mixed crop, intercrop, relay or sequential crop along with other vegetables, cereals and cash crops.

Potato is originated in South America in the high Andean hills and towards the end of 16th century it was first introduced into Europe by Spanish conquerors. In the early 17th century, it was brought to India by British missionaries or Portuguese traders. Thus, potato developed as a temperate crop and was later distributed throughout the world. Cultivated potato consists of two sub species, Solanum tuberosm ssp. andigena and S. tuberosum ssp tuberosum. Subspecies andigena is the primitive form which is adapted to shorter day length and high altitudes of mountains (above 2000). The presently cultivating tuberosum subspecies is adapted to long or short day condition of tropical regions and lower altitudes (500-200m above MSL) and is believed to be evolved from andigena types through selection.

Morphology and Floral Biology

Potato is herbaceous in nature with erect to prostrate stem. Stem is variably coloured from green, purple or mottled green or purple. Leaves are pinnate which ends in single terminal leaflet. Stolon arise from the portion of the plant below the ground. The stolon bears rudimentary leaves and tip is hook shaped. The sub apical portion at the tip of stolon enlarges to produce tubers. Hence, potato tubers are the modification of underground stem with shortened axis and poorly developed eyes. The leaf scar with a subtended lateral bud having underdeveloped internodes is referred to as the eye of the tuber. Potato is a long day plant. Moderate humidity and long day condition favours flowering. Hence flowering and fruit set is observed in hilly tracts. Inflorescence is produced terminally and is usually cymose. Flowers are bisexual, actinomorphic, and hypogynous with 5 calyx, 5 corolla and 5 stamens. The colour of corolla varies from white, pink, lilac, blue and purple. Pollen shedding is through the pores at the tip of the anthers. Mature fruit is a berry. Self-incompatibility is observed in diploid species and tetraploids are self-compatible.

Leafy vegetables are rich source of vitamins like A, C and minerals like calcium and iron. Most of the leafy vegetables are quick growing types and shows good response to manures and fertilizers. Their easiness in cultivation and adaptation to diverse agroclimatic conditions makes it suitable for various cropping systems. Some of them are annual in nature while some others are perennial. Leaves as well as tender stems are uses as vegetable in the cooked form. They are reported to have antinutritional factors, oxalates and nitrates compared to other vegetables. The annual leafy vegetables are widely cultivating in our country and among them, amaranth, palak, spinach and fenugreek are the major ones. These crops are short duration in nature, completes their entire life cycle by 80-90 days and produce good yield and brings monetary returns to farmers in short time.

Amaranth (Amaranth sp.)

It is herbaceous fast growing annual leafy vegetable grown for leaves as well as grains. Vegetable amaranth is reported to be equal or superior in taste to that of spinach. Leaves and succulent stem are good source of vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium and iron and are used as vegetable. High oxalate and nitrate content are reported in some species of amaranth.

The major vegetable species of amaranth cultivating in India is A. ticolor. It is suggested to be originated in South or South east Asia particularly in India. Another vegetable type, A. dubius shows diversity in Central America, Indonesia, Asia and Africa. A. lividus is the popular vegetable type in South and Central Europe. Other leafy species are A. viridis, A. tristis and A. spinosus. A. cruentus, A. hypochondriacus and A. caudatus are cultivating for grain purpose. Taxonomists suggested two sections in Amaranthus namely blitopsis which include leafy types and amaranthus which constitutes grain types.

Exotic vegetables are those vegetables that are introduced or not common in India. Its area under cultivation is comparatively less and most of the growing area surrounds the targeted markets especially five star hotels and restaurants. Now a days, there is an increasing trend in cultivation of these high value vegetables because of increased demand and good profit. Farmers could sell these vegetables at a at a higher price when compared to traditional vegetables. They are mostly cultivated in net houses or poly houses. Some of the exotic vegetables popular in India are asparagus, celery, broccoli, lettuce, parsley etc.

Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis)

Asparagus is a dioecious monocot which produces tender succulent above ground stems known as spears from fleshy underground crown. These tender spears are used as vegetable, for cooking purpose and for the preparation of soups. The white crystalline substance, asparagine present in the juice of young shoots have diuretic properties and is used in cardiac dropsy and chronic gut. Asparagus is mainly cultivating in countries like USA, Germany, Spain, France etc. while in India, it is cultivating only in a negligible area. Asparagus is grouped under cool season vegetables. But newly emerging spears are susceptible to frost though a wide range of environmental conditions can be tolerated by mature asparagus. Asparagus is native to temperate Europe and Asia and has been cultivating for 200 years.

Morphology

Asparagus is perennial in nature and produce erect branched stem and grows upto a height of 1 to 3 m. The crop yield continuously for 10-15 years from the initial year of spear production. Asparagus roots are tuberous and the leaves are narrow and needle like. Male and female flowers are produced in different plants.

Spices are those plants, the products of which imparts strong flavour and aroma to the food. This is attributed to the presence of compounds such as volatile oils present in the plant parts. India is renowned for wide variety of spices and is designated as land of spices. Spices are indispensable ingredient in almost all Indian dishes and cuisines foreign invaders invaded India for spices in ancient times. India is figured as the largest producer, consumer and exporter of spices and spice products in the world. Turmeric and Ginger are the major rhizomatous spices of vegetable origin widely cultivating and using in India. They are known for its antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, hence using in medicines for the treatment of various ailments. Apart from these rhizomatous spices, India is also contributing a major share in the production of seed spices. Around twenty spices among sixty-three spices growing in our country are classified as seed spices. Major seed spices of India are coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek, dill, ajowain, celery, anise, nigella, caraway etc. These seed spices are extensively cultivated in the arid to semi-arid region of India as Rabi crop.

It is estimated that, spice production in our country increased from 67.64 lakh tonnes in 2014-15 to 106.79 lakh tonnes in 2020-21 with an annual growth rate 7.9%. There is a corresponding increase in the area of cultivation also. An increase in area from 32.24 lakh hectare to 45.28 lakh hectare was observed. Among the major spices, cumin (14.8%), garlic (14.7%), ginger (7.5%), fennel (6.8%), coriander (6.2%), fenugreek (5.8%), red chilli (4.21%) and turmeric (1.3 %), showed significant growth rate in production. The export of spices contributes around 41% of the total export earnings from all horticulture crops in the country and it ranks fourth among agricultural commodities, after marine products, non-basmati rice and basmati rice.

Climate change is a complex and dynamic phenomenon that has significant impacts on agriculture, especially in terms of uncertainty and variability. Agricultural dynamics refer to the various factors that affect agricultural production, including climate, soil, water availability, pests, and diseases, as well as market forces and government policies. Climate change has significant impacts on agricultural dynamics. Variations in temperature, patterns of rainfall, and occurrences of extreme weather can influence crop yields and livestock production in both beneficial and detrimental ways (UCAR, 2021). The effects of climate change on farming can differ based on the geographical location and the specific agricultural practices employed (Wikipedia Contributors, 2019). For example, in some areas, increased rainfall may lead to increased crop yields, while in other areas, droughts may lead to crop failures and loss of income for farmers. Additionally, rising temperatures can cause reduced crop yields and decreased quality of some crops.

Uncertainty is a term used to describe a situation where there is a lack of information, knowledge, or predictability about a particular outcome or event. In agricultural dynamics, uncertainty can refer to a range of factors that can affect the production, distribution, and consumption of agricultural products. One of the most significant sources of uncertainty in agriculture is the weather. The productivity of crops can be significantly influenced by weather conditions, including rainfall and temperature and farmers need to effectively adjust their agricultural practices to adapt to these changing weather patterns (Guntukulaand Goyari, 2020). For example, droughts or floods can reduce crop yields, while frost or hail can damage crops(Lamaoui et al., 2018).

The social, ecological and economic interpretation of climate change by farmers involves understanding the interactions between the natural environment, social systems, and economic factors (Spash, Clive L, 2011). Farmers need to consider these interactions when making decisions about their farming practices. For example, changes in climate can affect the availability of water, soil fertility, and crop yields, which can in turn affect social and economic factors such as food security and income. Farmers need to take into account the wider consequences of their agricultural practices on society and the environment which includes considering the impacts on biodiversity, ecosystems, and human well-being (Warsaw et al., 2021).

In the context of a thesis, theoretical orientation refers to the conceptual or theoretical framework or perspective that informs and shapes the overall approach and analysis of the research (Natalie, 2022). It involves selecting and adopting a specific set of theories, concepts, or models that provide a foundation for understanding and interpreting the research topic. The theoretical orientation helps to guide the methodology, and provide a coherent framework for organizing and analysing the data.

Theoretical orientation in a thesis serves several purposes. It helps to establish a theoretical basis for the study, providing a context for the research and connecting it to existing knowledge and theories in the field. It also helps to guide the selection of appropriate research methods and data analysis techniques. The theoretical orientation shapes the overall structure and content of the thesis, ensuring that the study is grounded in relevant theories and concepts and contributes to the existing body of knowledge. By adopting a specific theoretical orientation, the researcher can provide a clear and systematic framework for understanding and interpreting the findings of the study. This orientation also helps to establish credibility and validity for the research, as it demonstrates the researcher’s awareness of and engagement with the existing theoretical perspectives in the field.

This chapter addresses crucial terminology and concepts essential for effectively communicating the ideas of the current study. It lays the groundwork for empirical investigation and aids in the selection of predictor variables. Additionally, this section involves a scholarly and theoretical exercise that influences the operational definition and content of the research. It combines conceptual inputs, axiomatic inputs, logical discussions, and the pursuit of knowledge to construct a theory that aligns with the research objectives and designs.

The Review of literature is a systematic, explicit and reproducible method of identifying, evaluating and synthesizing the existing body of a completed and a recorded work produced by researchers, scholars and practitioners. The Review of literature is also a resource paper which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings as well as the theoretical and the methodological contributions to a particular topic. These are available mostly in academic and scholastic journals.

Review of literature provide the basics for research in nearly every academic f ield. This chapter is an extensive survey of all past studies relevant to the field of investigation which gives knowledge of what others have found out in the related field of study. In any scientific investigation or research, a comprehensive presentation of the review of literature is a statutory requirement.

The aim of review of literature is to highlight what has been done so far in the field of interest and how our findings are related to earlier research.

Its main functions are to develop a better understanding of the problem to be investigated, delineate a new area of study and avoid unnecessary duplication, decide on the tools and techniques to be adopted including developing some new ones and also to relate the present study with the previous ones by finding out the areas of agreement and disagreement.

The review of literature may

(a) Indicate the following by providing referential inputs – Approaches, Methods, Variables used, Statistical procedure, Expected results.

(b) Provide theoretical background to the study.

(c) Help to justify how the findings are related to the body of knowledge in the f ield of research.

(d) Establish a link between what we have proposed to study and what has already been found. It helps us to refine the research methodology.

The research setting provides specific details about the location where a study is conducted. This study area typically encompasses a particular geographical region, such as a state, district, block, or gram panchayat, chosen according to the research requirements. The researcher must have a thorough understanding of the locality, including its communication methods, in order to effectively access all parts of the region for data collection.

In social science research, a clear comprehension of the characteristics, attitudes, and behaviours of the individuals within the study area is essential. Without this understanding, accurately conceptualizing, perceiving, and interpreting data becomes challenging. To obtain a comprehensive understanding of the implications and behavioural intricacies of the local people representing a broader community in the referenced study area, researchers must have a solid grasp of these factors. Therefore, this chapter critically analyses the socio-demographic background of the residents in a rural setting.

The term “research setting” denotes the context in which research inputs and elements are absorbed, interacted with, and mutually contribute to the system’s overall performance.

The research setting is crucial because it shapes and influences the interactions of various factors and components. Therefore, conducting a study on how farmers perceive persuasive issues and other topics requires a local context that takes into account the unique natural environment, demographics, crop ecology, institutional framework, and socio-cultural factors. For example, when writing a paper about the social behaviour of chimpanzees, it is important to include details about the research setting. This may include information such as where the chimpanzees were studied (in the wild or in captivity), the number of chimpanzees that were observed, whether they were part of the same social group, the geographic location, the time of the study, the season/weather conditions, the availability of resources such as food, water, and shelter, and any environmental factors that were present. There are two types of research settings: macro and micro. The macro research setting encompasses the entire state, while the micro research setting focuses on specific districts, blocks, or village peripheries. The aim of this approach is to understand the study environment from broader perspectives using the state as a reference frame and the district and block profiles as units of in-depth analysis.

The research methodology constitutes a comprehensive and well-structured plan of action for conducting the investigation and serves as a blueprint for the research process. Its purpose is to gain an understanding of the underlying concepts, methods, and techniques employed to define the study, gather relevant information, analyse data, and interpret the findings, thereby revealing concrete evidence and formulating theories.

In this chapter, an in-depth exploration of the research methodology is undertaken 
to comprehend the concepts, methods, and techniques employed for designing the 
study, gathering data, conducting data analysis, and interpreting the results. To 
facilitate clarity and ease of comprehension, the chapter has been divided into the 
following sub-headings:
 1. Research Design
 2. Locale of research
 3. Pilot study
 4. Sampling Design
 5. Variables and their Empirical measurement
 6. Methods of Data collection
 7. Preparation of Interview Schedule
 8. Item analysis and Expert’s rating for devising scoring technique for variables
 9. Pre-testing of Interview Schedule
 10. Data Processing and Analysis for FCM
 11. Statistical Tools used for Data Analysis
 12. Software used for Data Analysis 5.1. Research Design
A research design provides a structured approach for researchers to answer their research questions in an unbiased, precise, and cost-effective way. It establishes 
a framework for testing relationships between variables and ensures that the 
research is going on right direction. There are various types of research designs available, and the current study uses the descriptive and diagnostic research design. 
Descriptive research design is used to collect accurate and relevant information 
about the current state of a phenomenon, and to draw valid and generalized 
conclusions wherever possible. 

This chapter focuses on presenting empirical findings from data analysis to provide sufficient interpretation so to draw reliable conclusions. To enhance and complement the textual contents of the study, tables and models are frequently utilized. Additionally, the discussion serves to contextualize the study’s findings and establish connections with the research work.

The pattern of distribution of the variable, Education (x2 ) depicts that the maximum education of the respondents is 5 and the minimum is 2. The mean value of education of the respondents is 4.09 with standard deviation of 0.82. The Coefficient of Variation is 19.96 per cent which indicates the distribution of variable is highly consistent.

the maximum functional education of the respondents is 15 and the minimum is 2. The mean value of functional education of the respondents is 8.27 with standard deviation of 3.39. The distribution of the variable is fairly consistent with a CV value of 41.06 per cent.

The pattern of distribution of the variable, Size of family (x4 ) depicts that the maximum size of family of the respondents is 9 and the minimum is 3. The mean value of size of family of the respondents is 5.62 with standard deviation of 1.48. The Coefficient of Variation is 26.34 per cent which indicates the distribution of variable is fairly consistent.

The pattern of distribution of the variable, Cultivated Land Holding per capita (x5 ) depicts that the maximum cultivated land holding of the respondents is 1.92 and the minimum is 0.25. The mean value of cultivated land holding of the respondents is 0.77 with standard deviation of 0.30. The distribution of the variable is fairly consistent with a CV value of 38.83 per cent.

the maximum no. of land fragment of the respondents is 2 and the minimum is 1. The mean value of no. of land fragment of the respondents is 1.24 with standard deviation of 0.43. The Coefficient of Variation is 34.73 per cent which indicates the distribution of variable is fairly consistent.

The pattern of distribution of the variable, Avg. size of land fragment (x7 ) depicts that the maximum avg. size of land fragment of the respondents is 1.25 and the minimum is 0.25. The mean value of avg. size of land fragment of the respondents is 0.64 with standard deviation of 0.19. The distribution of the variable is fairly consistent with a CV value of 30.18 per cent.

7.1 Summary

Climate change is a complex global phenomenon that poses significant challenges for agriculture including uncertainty about future weather patterns, soil conditions, and other environmental factors. Farmers are facing the difficult task of interpreting and responding to these changes in order to maintain their livelihoods and ensure food security for growing populations. In this context, mental modelling has emerged as a useful approach for understanding how farmers interpret and respond to climate change. Mental models are cognitive representations of how individuals understand and make decisions about complex systems, and can be used to identify key drivers of behaviour and decision-making.

The present study has explored the social, ecological, and economic factors that influence farmers’ mental models on perception of climate change, level of uncertainty and trend of agricultural change in the selected study area. It argues that farmers’ mental models are shaped by a range of factors, including their own experiences and observations, social networks and interactions, access to information and resources, and broader economic and political contexts. The present study has also highlighted the role of uncertainty in shaping farmers’ mental models and decision-making. Uncertainty about the future impacts of climate change can create significant challenges for farmers, as they must make decisions based on incomplete information and uncertain predictions.

The current research work was carried out in the new alluvial zone which is one of the agro-ecological regions in the state of West Bengal. To conduct the study, three villages located in the Haringhata block of Nadia district were chosen randomly. A total of 90 farmers were selected with 30 respondents each from the villages of Kastadanga, JalkarBhomra and Subuddipur. Initially a list of contact farmers was collected from the Kastadanga SKUS and few contact farmers were selected randomly from the list. Afterwards Snowball sampling method was followed to select respondents.

Despite the meticulous methodology and extensive analysis employed throughout this research project, it is crucial to acknowledge and address the limitations that arose during the study. By recognizing these limitations, we not only ensure a transparent evaluation of the research process but also shed light on potential areas for future investigations to refine and expand upon the findings.

In this section of the chapter, the limitations encountered in this thesis are highlighted as follows:

As the present study draws to a close, it opens up a myriad of possibilities for future research and exploration in the field of the present study. The insights gained and the findings presented in this thesis may provide a foundation for building upon and extending the existing body of knowledge. By identifying key areas that require additional attention and offering suggestions for future studies, this section of the chapter aims to inspire and guide researchers in their pursuit of enhancing our understanding and driving progress in this dynamic and evolving field.

The present study leaves behind the following domains which may be researched out in future:

1) The present research can be replicated with varied geo-spatial situations viz., in different locations and settings, with different respondents, with spatio-temporal expansion and methodological innovation.

Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important cereal grains in the world today and serves as a staple food source for more than half of the world’s particularly in India, China and a number of other countries in Africa and Asia. It occupies an area of about 161 million hectares at global level wi`th production of 503.8 million tones milled basis. More than 90% of the rice is produced and consumed in Asian countries. (FAO United Nation 2017).

Rice provides 21 percent of global human per capita energy and 15% of per capita protein. Although rice protein ranks high in nutritional quality among cereals, protein content is modest. Rice also provides minerals, vitamins, and fiber, although all constituents except carbohydrates are reduced by milling.

Rice commodity recognized as a supreme commodity to mankind, because rice is truly life, culture and tradition. It has its own history and religious importance in human life. India is one of the world’s largest producers of white rice. For India, like many other developing countries, the issue of feeding ever increasing population is of prime importance, this problem can be solved by maximizing agricultural production through use of high yielding varieties and adopting improved package of practices of rice crop. India is facing the challenges of food and fodder production to meet the demand of rising human and cattle population. One of the major causes of this problem is low level of adoption of improved agricultural practices by the farmers. Population www.thecropsite.com

There are three seasons for growing rice in India viz. autumn, winter and summer. The main rice growing season in the country is kharif. It is known as winter rice as per the harvesting time. The sowing time of kharif rice is June – July and it is harvested in September - October. India is an important centre of rice cultivation. The rice is cultivated on the largest areas in India. Historians believe that while the indica variety of rice was first domesticated in the area covering the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas (i.e. North-Eastern India), stretching through Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Southern China, while the japonica variety was domesticated from wild rice in Southern China which was introduced to India. Perennial wild rice still grows in Assam and Nepal.

Introduction

Onion (Allium cepa L.) is one of the most important commercial vegetable crop cultivated extensively in India and it belongs to the family Alliaceae. It is used both in green and mature stage for salad and spice in a variety of flavoured dishes and soups Onion is liked for its flavour and pungency which is due to the presence of a volatile oil ‘allyl propyl disulphide’- an organic compound rich in sulphur. Onion bulb is a rich source of minerals like phosphorus, calcium and carbohydrates. It also contains protein and vitamin C. It is being used in several ways as a fresh, frozen, dehydrated bulbs and green bunching types. Dehydrated onion is in great demand which reduces transport cost and storage losses. Onion has got good medicinal value. It contains several anti-cancer agents which have shown to prevent cancer in animals. The beneficial compound called ‘quercetin’ present in onion has shown to be powerful antioxidant. Extracts of onion are being used in the prevention of ‘atherosclerosis’ and ‘coronary heart disease’. onion extensive culinary, dietary, therapeutic, trading, income and employment generation value. Onion is commodity of mass consumption and is grown almost all over the country mainly by small and marginal farmers (Shukla and Singh-2018).

A global review of onion area and production revealed that onion is grown in the world in an area of 43.64 lakh hectares with a total production of 873.44 lakh tons and productivity of 21.79 tons/ha. China and India are leading onion growing countries with a total production of 247.00 and 159.40 lakh tons, respectively during the year 2017. India produces around 174 lakh tons of onion annually ranking second in the world. Currently in India the production of onion 31129 million tons with the cultivated of 1914 lakh hectares in 2021-22 observed respectively. Among the different onion growing states Maharashtra tops in area and production. (https://www.districts of india.com).

Introduction

Pulses are the most important part of our diet, richest and cheap source of proteins, vitamins, minerals and amino acids besides high nutritional value. Hence, the economic value of these crops is very high. Pulses can be produced with a minimum use of resources and are mostly cultivated under rainfed conditions and do not require intensive irrigation (Sood et al. 2018). Keeping in view large benefits of pulses for human health; the United Nations has proclaimed 2016 as the International Year of Pulses. Thus, due attention is required to enhance the production of pulses not only to meet the dietary requirement of proteins but also to raise the awareness about pulses for achieving nutritional, food security and environmental sustainability. The Government of India through Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has established a wide network of Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) in all the rural districts of the country. These KVKs under the aegis of the National Agricultural Research and Education System are the real carriers of frontline technologies and impart knowledge and critical input support for the famers. The frontline demonstration programme (FLDs) in pulses is a unique programme by Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India, conducted under close supervision of farm scientists. Main objective of FLDs in pulses is to demonstrate and popularize the improved agro-technology on farmers fields under varied farming situations for effective transfer of generated technology and f ill the gap between improved technology and adopted/indigenous technology to enhance pulse productivity and farms gains for sustaining the production systems especially under rainfed farming (Choudhary et al. 2009). The field demonstrations conducted under the close supervision of scientists of the National Agriculture Research System is called front-line demonstrations. The main objective of Frontline Demonstrations is to demonstrate newly released crop production and protection technologies and its management practices in the farmers’ field under different agro-climatic regions and farming situations.

Introduction

The agricultural sector in India has focussed more on agricultural output and food security. From the year 1965 to 2016, India’s food production was multiplied by 3.7 times while the population was multiplied by 2.55 times. More than one f ifth of rural households with self-employment in agriculture as their principal occupation were having income less than the poverty line (NSSO, 2011-12). In the early 1980s, the farm income per cultivator was 34 per cent of the income of non agricultural workers. In the year 1993-1994, the relative income of farmers was one-fourth of the income of the non-agricultural workers. According to SAS 2012 2013, the average annual income of farm households from the farm as well as non farm sources was Rs. 77,112 which is 60 per cent from farm activities and 40 per cent from non-farm activities. In April 2016, the Government constituted an Inter Ministerial Committee to examine issues relating to DFI and recommend strategies to achieve the same. The target was to change the farm to non-farm income ratio from the existing 60:40 in 2015-16 to 70:30 by 2022-23. A seven-point strategy was proposed and several initiatives were taken to increase the income of farmers. The last available estimates on the income of agricultural households are based on the Situation Assessment Survey of Agricultural Households conducted by the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) during 77th round (January – December 2019). As per the survey results, the average monthly income per agricultural household from all sources was estimated to be. Rs. 10218. Thus, the present study was taken to know the awareness, knowledge and perception of farmers towards doubling farmers income. Understanding the farmers awareness, knowledge and perception would help to develop specific strategies for increasing the farmers income.

Introduction

Agriculture is the main occupation in India which engages nearly 119 million of farmers and 144 million landless labourers (Census 2011). According to the Agriculture Census (2012), about 80 per cent of Indian farmers fall under the small and marginal category. The average size of land holding in India is 1.15 ha which will tend to decrease in coming years due to land fragmentation, industrialization and urbanization which are forcing farmers to quit farming and look for more viable livelihood options (Bhattacharyya et al. 2018). Specially small and marginal farmers are exposed to high risk of farming due to climate vagaries, uncertainties in production and market demand, lack of access to support services and markets, limited scope of farm mechanization and the consistent failure of half-hearted government efforts which have been unable to make farming an exciting profession to the old as well as new generations. In Indian context, agriculture has never been a profession for the literate section of the society due to lower production and profitability. NSSO report (2012-13), in alignment with the current scenario, says 40 per cent farmers want to quit agriculture if they get alternatives.

Owing to several biotic and abiotic stresses, the problem of agrarian distress in India has accentuated in recent years. Government of India has taken initiative in its annual budget of 2016-17 and initiate a number of steps to alleviate agrarian distress and improve the situation before the fight for food security faces disastrous challenge from mass migration of Indian farmers to other occupations. The steps taken by the Government of India are improving irrigation efficiency, providing crop insurance, improving market infrastructure and its efficiency, promoting organic farming, restoring soil health and so on.

Introduction

Owing to several biotic and abiotic stresses, the problem of agrarian distress in India has accentuated in recent years. The Indian government set a target of doubling farmers’ income by 2022–2023 in its annual budget for 2016–17 and started a number of initiatives to achieve this goal, including better irrigation efficiency, crop insurance, market infrastructure improvements, organic farming promotion, soil health restoration, and others. The pathway for doubling of farmers’ income encompasses several dimensions, from production to post-harvest management. These include: bridging yield gap, crop diversification, improvements in total factor productivity and proper management of irrigation (GoI, 2007, Evenson et al. 1999) alongwith the provisions of market and institutional support for efficient post-harvest management. With respect to Himachal Pradesh, in order to improve the productivity levels of existing crop enterprises and promote the diversification of cropping systems, various steps have been taken by the line departments which include the creation of water harvesting and irrigation infra-structure, skill up gradation of farmers, subsidy on critical inputs like seed, fertilizers, plant protection materials, market access through information technology and village road network, crop insurance schemes, etc. The impact of these interventions is reflected through the continuous increase in the productivity levels and inclination of farming community towards the adoption of new crop enterprises vegetables and fruit crops.

Introduction

India pre-dominantly an agriculture-based country, requires constant endeavors to seewhether rural and agricultural credit facilities are enhanced with time. As a part of theseefforts, agricultural credit cards and cash credit facility were introduced in lending system. The Kisan Credit Card is a credit card programme launched by Indian banks in August 1998. The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) developed this model scheme to supply term loans for agricultural needs based on the suggestions of the R.V. Gupta Committee. Its goal is to provide financial assistance to farmers in order to address the agricultural sector’s comprehensive credit needs. All commercial banks, Regional Rural Banks, and state cooperative banks are among the participants. Short-term credit limitations for crops are in place, as are term loans. Personal accident insurance covers KCC credit card members up to Rs. 50,000 for death and permanent disability and up to Rs. 25,000 for other risks. The premium is split evenly between the bank and the borrower. The validity period is five years, with the option of an additional three year extension, Kisan Credit Card provides cash and term credit to farmers for a variety of linkedoperations such as pump sets, land expansion, planting, and drip irrigation. Soil Wellbeing Card programming has been institutionalized and online programming built for eight statesunderthee-Government Program to provide coordinated supplement administration suggestions based on soil test edit reaction approach. Ranchers receive data through avariety of channels, including Common Service Centres, Internet Kiosks, and SMS, as partofthe Nationale-Governance Plan for Agriculture. Farmers are spared from the exorbitant interest rates charged by traditional banks under the KCC plan. The interest rate on KCC loans ranges from 2% to 4%. This low interest rate aids farmers in repaying loans more quickly, taking into account the crop’s harvesting season and the date the loan was provide.

Introduction

A woman is the nucleus of a family, particularly in rural India. For the rural women, the day starts early in the morning with the responsibilities of fetching water, fodder and fuel, cooking food and looking after the livestock and children. Promila et al. (2003) revealed that farm women spent 15:64 hrs/day and 16:58 hrs/ day for productive work during the slack and peak period, respectively. The time saved by farm women from farm activities during the slack period was diverted towards care of children, family members and household works. Still, there is no recognition for their hard work; just because their work is not evaluated in terms of money.

The contribution of women in agriculture is estimated to be about 50 to 60 per cent. In many places, the entire livestock management is looked after by women only. They help in farm operation, take their animals on distant lands for grazing, washing, milking, fodder, breeding management, sale of milk, if necessary by taking it to the market and so on in addition, perform the functions related to house management. Even though, women are playing a very important role in innovation decision process, they are not allowed to try and see whether they are capable of managing farm and family affairs independently or with the help of family members.Adequate attention is also not being paid for the social and economic development of farm women and to encourage them to avail training facilities on farm and dairy management practices for supplementing their family income through development of occupational skills and proficiency.

Introduction

Women make essential contributions to the agricultural and rural economies in all developing countries. Their roles vary considerably between and within regions and are changing rapidly in many parts of the world, where economic and social forces are transforming the agricultural sector. Agriculture needs manpower, if the manpower split into gender wise, amazing fact is that the women contribution is greater or equal to men (Chauhan, 2011).That is reason that right from the day the country become independent, it has been trying hard for rural development.

According to the Penguin Atlas of Women in the World, women make up 40 per cent of the agricultural labour force in most parts of the world, while in developing countries they make up 67 per cent of the agricultural workforce (Singh, 2008). Therefore, strengthening and expanding women’s roles and opportunities in agriculture promotes sustainable economic development. Gender inequalities are a measurable and significant limit on agricultural productivity and efficiency, undermining rural economic development. India has paved the way to development by increasing its trade and growth in Agriculture sector. To review the agriculture scenario of our country, it depicted that there is need to pay sincere attention towards the human resource development (men and women together) because modernizing agriculture needs skill and efficient work forced. Farm business has become a family enterprise in India, where both men and women take part evenly. It is well known fact that the success of rural development process largely depends on the participation of people at large, irrespective of sex. The problems of involving women’s participation in the development process are now catching the attention of planners and policy maker because of increasing imbalances generated out of development process. Now days, rural women play a vital role in domestic and socio-economic life of the society and therefore, national development is not possible without developing this important and substantial section of our society (Okafor, 2008).

Introduction

Agriculture is the back bone of Indian economy. About 18.8 percent (2021-22) of the national income originates from the agriculture sector. Approximately 60 percent of India’s population is directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture for livelihood. A large number of important industries like jute, textiles, edible oils, tobacco, sugar etc. receive the raw materials produced by agriculture sector. India occupies second position in the production of fruits and vegetables in the world after China (National Horticulture Database 2019 2020) It is grown almost in all the states of the country.

Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea L. var. botrytis) like all other Brassicaceae family crops has descended through introgression, mutation, human selection and adaptation from a single wild predecessor Brassica oleracea L. var. sylvestris which is still found growing in western and southern Europe and North Africa. The name cauliflower consists of two Latin words namely ‘caulis’ means cabbage and ‘floris’ means flower. It is grown throughout the country for its highly suppressed ‘prefloral fleshy apical meristem’ called “Curd” which is used as vegetable, soup and for pickling (Choudhury, 2006). Cauliflower is the pride of cole crops because of its good taste, flavour and nutritional value. It contains good amount of vitamins like vitamin A, vitamin C and fair amount of proteins and fibers. The cauliflower is also a good source of minerals like Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Na, and S.

Introduction

Among the rice growing countries, India has the largest area (448 lakh ha) followed by china and Bangladesh. Total food grain production in India is estimated at 2813l.7 lakh tonnes. Rice production is estimated at 1156 lakh tonnes (Anonymous, 2010). In India, rice is grown in the state of Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab and West Bengal lead in the area, while West Bengal harvest highest rice production. The average yield per hectare is highest i.e., 5970 kg/ha in the Punjab during 2018-19.

Rice is grown throughout the state except Kachchh and Saurashtra. Some part of the state is growing rice as a drilled, while transplanted rice is taken in south and middle Gujarat. In Gujarat rice occupies about 10.61 per cent of the gross cropped area of the state and accounts for around 25.5 per cent of the food grain production. It is grown on an average about 7.5 to 8.5 lakh hector of land comprising nearly 70 to 80 per cent low land (transplanted) and 15 to 20 per cent of upland (drilled) rice (Anonymous, 2020). During the 2018-19, the yield of kharif rice in Gujarat was around 2247.75 kg/ha. Yield of summer rice was 3130.96 kg/ha and total production of rice in the year of 2018-19 was 1911 tonnes (Anonymous, 2020). During the 2019-20, the yield of kharif rice was 2117.81 kg/ha and yield of summer paddy was 2996.36 kg/ha and total production of rice in the year of 2019-20 was 1929.98 tonnes (Anonymous, 2020).

In Gujarat some districts like Chhotaudepur, Tapi, Navsari have highest rice productivity which covered 1.279 lakh hector area with production and productivity respectively of 3.338 lakh tonne and 2582 kg/ha and some district like Mehsana, Narmada, Panchmahal, North Gujarat etc. have medium to low productivity of paddy. But in some part of North Gujarat like Gandhinagar and Sabarkantha have low productivity of rice.

Introduction

The most significant commercially grown fruit crop in the country is the mango (Mangifera indica L.), which belongs to the Anacardiaceae family. It’s known as the “king of fruits.” Mango cultivars can be found in the greatest variety in India. Mango farming is thought to have begun in South East Asia. Since about 6,000 years ago, mango has been grown in south Asia.Mango is native to South Asia, from where it has been distributed worldwide to become one of the most cultivated fruits in the tropics.

The major mango-growing states are Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Bihar, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. Andhra Pradesh rank 1st in area, whereas Uttar Pradesh rank 1st in production and productivity. Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, West Bengal and Gujarat together contribute for about 82% of the total production in India.

India to become the second largest fruit producer in the world, after china, with a production of 102481 thousands metric tonnes of fruits from an area of 6930 thousands hectares in 2020-21.The fruit is grown in India, the total area under mango cultivation was 2317 thousand hectare with an annual production of 20386 thousand metric tonnes.(NHB 2020-21).

Mango is well adopted in tropical and sub-tropical climates but it can be grown up to 1,100 meters above sea-level. There should not be humidity, rain or frost during flowering. The temperature between 24 and 270C is ideal for its cultivation. Higher temperature during fruit development and maturity gives better quality fruits. The areas expressed frequent showers and high humidity is prone to many pests and diseases. Thus it can grow best in regions with a rainfall between 25cm and 250 cm. Regions having bright sunny days and moderate humidity during flowering is ideal for mango growing.The farmers 92.20 per cent had problems of pests in their mango trees. The most common pests were the mango seed weevil 48.10 per cent, fruit fly 36.40 per cent, trips 1.30 per cent, aphids 1.30 per cent and the most common diseases were the powdery mildew 46.80 per cent, anthracnose 18.20 per cent and scab 2.60 per cent (Gitonga,2010).

Introduction

Horticulture crops cover large varieties of fruits, vegetables, flowers and plantation and spices crops. Among these, vegetable cultivation is the major attraction to farmers as it is comparatively more remunerative the field crops. Vegetables not only provide maximum output but also give more income per unit area of land. Vegetable cultivation among small land holders has always been source of supplementary source of income and provides gainful employment through intensive cultivation and thus vegetable growers are normally more prosperous than those who grow cereals, because of higher returns.

Brinjal (Solanummelongena L) is a commercial vegetable crop belongs to the family of solanaceae. It is a nannual crop. It is mainly used for culinary purpose. Brinjal has been considered as one of the important vegetable crop. The brinjal growers can increase production of brinjal through adoption of new varieties and with improved technologies. A first-hand knowledge regarding existing status of adoption of improved technology helpful to the extension workers for concentrating their efforts to create favorable condition for better adoption of the innovations of brinjal cultivation. Arvind kumar singh (2017) revealed that more than half of the respondents belong to middle age group, educated up to higher secondary, had medium level ofland holding, medium level of annual income, sources of information and low level of material possession. Further headded, that he possessed low level of farm power.

Introduction

Agriculture has been undoubtedly the major source of livelihood in the developing nations like India. Livelihood is defined as adequate stock and f low of food and cash with an individual or a family to meet its basic needs (Girish et al., 2020). It encompasses the capabilities, assets (stores, resources, claims and access) and activities required for a means of living (Chambers and Conway, 1992). Livelihoods are considered secure when households have secure ownership or access to resources and income earning activities, including reserves and assets, to offset risks, ease shocks and meet contingencies (Chambers, 1989). The livelihood security is a complex concept that is location specific, subjective and dynamic (Hogger and Ruedi, 2004). It comprises of many indicators like food, educational, financial, health, culturaland social securities. Constraints like practices of traditional methods of cultivation, lack of access to modern technology, low productivity of crops, in-adequate capital formation and low investment, widespread illiteracy among farmers, etc., have become a major threat to the educational, food, economic and social securities, thus ultimately affecting the livelihood status of farming households in the country (Hatai and Sen, 2008). Since, a large fraction of farmers in the country lives in the rural areas, they have no proper knowledge regarding the usage of modern farming techniques. Often their low level of education and lack of communication has resulted into a lack of general awareness regarding the modern research and inventions on agriculture (Makal et al., 2017). In such scenario, farmers’ trainings play important role which helps the farmers in understanding the application of latest agricultural technologies in daily farming activities. It improves the knowledge of the trainees about the improved farm practices (Srinivas and Sailaja, 2013). The major players providing these extension services in public sector are Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) and ICT-led extension interventions by Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare (DAC&FW), Government of India. Many state universities through their KVKs, have been imparting need-based trainings to the farmers in their routine activities as well as sponsored by various departments/agencies. In last few decades, KVKs have increasingly become associated with grass root development (Saha, 2013).

Introduction

A large number of institutions in the field of agriculture and allied sectors are contributing to research in development of high yielding varieties of crops, technological innovations and other initiatives to boost production and human resource development. The technology available has to be permeated depending upon the necessities of the region – its soil, climate, culture and needs and means of the farmers, available human resources, feasibility and viability of different parts of the country. It has been observed that there are variations in knowledge and technological percolation. The National Commission of Farmers (founded in 2004) raised the issue of knowledge deficit, which directly impinges on agriculture productivity. There are significant gaps in backward and forward linkages between the agricultural laboratories and the farmers, in so far as transfer of technology is concerned. The 10th and 11th plans have emphasized the need for effective extension services. The 11th Plan Approach Paper also states that “in the longer run, growth in agriculture productivity can be sustained only through a continuous technological progress”. The 11th Plan shows a concern towards the problem of transfer of technology and knowledge at grass-root level and puts forth challenges before the extension agencies. The 11th Plan points out that extension services are to be treated as a service delivery mechanism. The 12th Plan also emphasizes the need for mechanisation of agriculture with robust extension services.

Introduction

Women play a pivotal role in agricultural and rural economies in all developing countries. Rural India woman is facing Poverty and unemployment is the major problems. In India at the end of ninth five year span 26.1% of the population was living below poverty line. In the rural area 27.1% of the population was living under poverty. The overall unemployment rate is estimated to 7.32%. The female unemployment rate is 8.5%. The rate of growth of women unemployment in the rural area is 9.8%. A series of development programmes have been implemented for the development of economy in general ignoring women who constitute 50 percent of the total population. Role of women in development is an indispensable factor. Development programmes no longer can achieve their target without the participation and contribution of women. Women empowerment is multifaceted concept that extends to the psychological, economic, social, cultural, political and institutional spheres of women’s lives. The Government of India has launched and implemented a number of schemes towards poverty alleviation and women empowerment but it was observed that women in rural areas especially from the poor families could not be benefitted. Women empowerment is the most important instrument for the socio-economic development of a nation. In this context, SHGs have emerged as the tools that wield power to create a socio-economic revolution in the rural areas of our country. The empowerment of rural women is a key priority in the National Development Policy of India. In India, the organization of SHGs, especially those promoted by Non Governmental organizations (NGOs) is widely recognized as a development strategy for poverty reduction. NGOs also known as voluntary sector have become an irresistible global force today and it is growing in relation to its presence in developmental activities. Basically, an NGO or voluntary organisations are non-profit making agencies that are constituted with a vision by a group of likeminded people, committed for the uplift of the poor, marginalized, unprivileged, underprivileged, impoverished, downtrodden and the needy and they are closer and accessible to the target groups, flexible in administration, quicker in decision making, timely in action and facilitating the people towards self reliance ensuring their fullest participation in the whole process of development. SHGs are started by NGOs that generally have broad anti-poverty agendas. SHGs are seen as instruments for goals including empowering women, developing leadership abilities among poor people, increasing school enrollments and improving nutrition and the use of birth control. SHGs are small group of individual members who voluntarily come together and form an association for achieving a common objective. In most cases, SHGs are constituted by persons known to one another and coming from the same village community or neighbourhood. SHGs are small in size with membership ranging from 10 to 20 and are homogeneous. A strengthening development among women the nation over has been currently turned by quick advancement in SHG arrangement. The arrangement of SHGs isn’t conclusively a miniaturized scale credit venture however a strengthening procedure. The strengthening of women through SHGs would give advantage not exclusively to the individual women yet in addition for the family and network all in all through aggregate activity for improvement. Women constitute half of any country’s human endowment. All round development and harmonious growth of a nation would be possible only when women are considered as equal partners in progress with men.

Introduction

Humans primarily get their nourishment from agriculture. According to the most recent UN estimates, the population of the globe could increase to over 9.7 billion in 2050, and to fulfill the demands of an expanding population and a rising need for food, the energy demand in the agricultural sector has dramatically expanded. However, a farm that produces food needs a steady supply of energy to run the machinery, irrigation pumps, and other devices that are often powered by fossil fuels. Because of the ongoing demand for energy, there is growing concern that these fossil fuels will also run out soon (Aroonsrimorakotet al., 2020). Additionally, other global issues like climate change, water shortage, and energy security are just a few variables affecting agricultural production that require more environmentally friendly and sustainable farming methods As a result, it is crucial to maximize land usage and increase agricultural production through the deployment of cutting-edge farming techniques and new technology for both economic effectiveness and the best possible use of the limited resources available in the form of land. There are many distinct uses for renewable energy in agricultural systems. Renewable energy sources can also be used to generate electricity for a range of agricultural tasks (Torshizi and Mighani, 2017). Renewable energy can come from a variety of sources, but solar energy is the ideal option because it can be installed practically anywhere on the field, is pollution-free, and is also the most economical. Unlike the usage of fossil fuels, using solar energy doesn’t release greenhouse gases. For remote locations with erratic access to electricity, it is the best renewable energy choice. Applications for space and water heating, greenhouse heating, solar photovoltaic systems, and water pumps for irrigation using various forms of solar energy technology (Mekhilefet al., 2013). There are numerous benefits of using solar energy technologies, such as solar panel water pumping systems, aside from being free of fuel costs, solar panels also have lower maintenance costs and require fewer replacement components than generators powered by diesel engines. In order to meet the growing demand for agricultural products from the expanding population, agriculture is a sector that aspires to accept the usage of solar energy and reaps enormous benefits from it. Therefore, solar energy technology has emerged as a solution in order to boost economic benefits to farmers and improve the environment by reducing CO2 emissions into the atmosphere, thereby addressing the issues caused by a growing population and a shrinking amount of available resources (Aroonsrimorakot and Laiphrakpam, 2019). The potential for farmers to move from using fossil fuels to using renewable alternative energy, which might lead to produce superior in both quantity and quality of food produced in various kinds of agricultural farms (Bardi et al., 2013). The issue will get worse unless the farmers change their perception about the adoption of solar energy technologies. Therefore, it is advised for farmers to employ energy-saving tools for producing crops and to maximize land by installing solar energy systems because they are practical, affordable, and useful for a variety of tasks (Duprazet al., 2011). Since many people still solely rely on fossil fuels for energy and lack access to modern energy sources, in light of this, the current study was done to assess the level of awareness and adoption of solar energy in agricultural operations.

Introduction

India is the second-largest producer of vegetables in the world after China. India accounts for 16 percent of the world’s production of vegetables. India home to 17.74% of the world’s population has only accounted for about 2.4% of the world’s geographical area and 4% of its water resources. Vegetables play an imperative role in nutritional security, economic viability and fit well into the predominant intensive cropping systems prevailing in different parts of our country. More than 60 kinds of vegetables are grown in India in tropical, subtropical and temperate agro-climates. India is the largest producer of okra and ranks 2nd in the production of potato, onion, cauliflower, and cabbage. During 2013-2014, India produced 162.19 million tonnes of vegetables and vegetable export from our country was worth Rs. 5462.93 crores. For a balanced diet, an adult who works moderately needs about 300 grams of vegetables per day, of which about 50 grams should comprise root vegetables, 50 grams of leafy vegetables and 200 grams of other kinds of vegetables as per Dietary Guidelines for Indians, NIN, 2011.

The vegetable is one of the important crops of Jharkhand, which is being cultivated on a commercial scale. About 3.2% of the gross cropped area of the State is devoted to vegetable crops. Vegetable development depends not only on production but also on the marketing system. Vegetable cultivation being labour intensive can substantially increase employment and livelihood avenues too. Vegetable growers face many challenges in the course of marketing their products and their marketing behaviour varies under different circumstances. Keeping this in view, the present investigation entitled “Marketing Behaviour of vegetable growers in East Singhbhum district of Jharkhand” was undertaken.

Introduction

India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of turmeric in the world. Indian turmeric is considered to be the best in the world market because of its high curcumin content. India accounts for about 80 per cent of world turmeric production and 60 per cent of world exports. Major turmeric exporting countries are India, Thailand, Taiwan, and several other Southeast Asian, Central and Latin American countries. The major turmeric importing countries include Japan, Sri Lanka, Iran, UAE, US, UK and Ethiopia.

Turmeric is native of India and china. The word turmeric is derived from the French word ‘Terre-merite’ meaning merit of the earth. Its botanical name is Curcuma longa L. and belongs to family Zingeberaceae, it is also known as ‘Indian Saffron’ is an herbaceous perennial plant growing up to the height of 60 – 90 cm with short stem. The plant is propagated from rhizomes. The leaves are long, broad lanceolate and bright green. The flowers are pale yellow and born on dense spikes. The pseudo stem are shorter than leaves. The rhizomes were ready for harvesting about 7 to 9 months after planting.

India is popularly known as the “Spiced Bowl of the World” as a wide variety of spices with premium quality grown in a country since ancient times. Indian turmeric is considered to be the best in the world due to presence of high curcumine content. Turmeric contains up to 5.00 per cent essential oil and up to 5.00 per cent curcumine, a polyphenol.

Introduction

NITI Policy Paper No.1/20017 reveals details of the concept and time frame as how to double the income of the farmers. The policy paper emphasizes in increase in agriculture productivity, improvement in total factor productivity, diversification towards high value crop, and increase in crop intensity, increasing terms of trade for farmers and shifting cultivators to non-farm and subsidiary activities. The well thought and planned program for doubling the income of the farmers reflecting dream or reality. We have farmers of different types like, small. Marginal and large farmers, resource rich and resource poor farmers, farmers of irrigated and non-irrigated zones, tribal and non-tribal farmers , trained and untrained farmers and progressive and non-progressive farmers. The farmers and their economic structure are quite different from place to place even within district. NSSO data on consumption expenditure survey (2011-12) reveal that more than one-fifth of households with self employment in agriculture and their principal occupation were having income less the poverty line.

Milk Production Scenario

Milk is primary source of protein and lactoseDairy farming is considered to be a whole environment of reciprocal relations and dependency reproduction and protection of social values. In worldwise dairy cows count up to 264 millions producing 600 million tones of milk every year. The global average for milk production is approximately 2200 litters/cow. Cattle population of world is 1009.69 millions heads (FAO, 2019) and highest milk producing countries are India, USA, China, Pakistan and Brazil. In case of consumption of milk India tops in the world followed by EU, USA and China. The per capita consumption of milk is highest in the country of Belarus followed by Ukraine and New Zealand. India is ranked 7th in the world in this respect. In India total cattle population is 306.70 millions. The state of Odisha constitutes 1.19% of the total cattle population of India. The level of milk production of India is reported to be 198.2 metric million tones. The per capita availability of milk in India is 427 gms/day (2021) and highest being in Punjab followed by Rajasthan. In case of Odisha the per capita milk availability is 143 gms and in milk production the district Cuttack top the list followed by Ganjam and Jagatsinghpur.

Introduction

Animal husbandry and poultry rearing, in addition to offering economic participation, play an important role in securing household food security. The core notion of food security argues that everyone should have physical and economic access to the basic nutrition they require. ‘Food security is a scenario that exists when all people have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, secure, and nutritious food that fits their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life’, according to the FAO (2002). Consequently, two requirements must be met in order to ensure food security: the first is the availability of food, and the second is the ability to purchase it. There is a propensity to define food security at the national level without examining its condition at the grass roots level with major emphasis at the household or individual level. This is because, while national food security may appear to be adequate, disparities in food security may exist among regions, groups, households, and people.

Increased crop output can increase people’s calorific intake, but protein is also essential for health, and pulses and coarse grains are essential. According to the Directorate of Economics and Statistics, DAC & FW, total pulse output in the nation was roughly 25.42 million tonnes in 2017-18, and over 23.40 million tonnes in the following fiscal year (2018-19). This demonstrates the country’s falling pulse production pattern, diminishing the availability of vegetable protein to the public. A similar trend was observed in states like Assam, where the area under pulse production declined from 1,54,706 hectares in 2017-18 to 1,50,229 hectares in 2018-19, and further fell to 1,43,962 hectares in 2019-20. The provisional data further forecasted the area to fall even further to 1,42,303 hectares in 2020-21. (Statistical Handbook of Assam, 2020 and 2021)

1. Introduction

Milk is the principal source of protein and lactose in the diet. Dairy farming is viewed as a whole ecosystem of reciprocal relationships and reliance, as well as there production and safe guarding of societal values. Dairy farms are primarily made up of high-yielding dairy cows. Goats, sheep, and camels are some of the other animals employed in commercial dairy production. Milk has always been regarded as a healthy food. Milk includes more than9 other essential elements, including protein, carbs,vitamins, minerals, and lipids, in addition to calcium, which makes it critical for your bones.

Every year, about 600 million tonnes of milk are produced by over 264million dairy cows across the world. The global average for milk output per cow is around 2,200 litres. India is the world’s top milk producer followed by the United States, China,Pakistan, and Brazil. The economy of India is mostly dependent on agriculture and animal husbandry, with milk production playing a significant role. It is also the world’s largest producer of buffalo milk (FAO, 2019).

Co-operative dairy sector proved to be resilient as it continued to procuremilk from farmers and supply it to the consumers despite several logistical and other challenges. Milk production in India did not show any sign of slowdown. Milk productionis anticipated to be around 209.96 million tonnes in 2020-21, an increase of about 6.3 percent over the previous year. The estimated per capita availability of milk is expected to increase to about 425 gms /day which is more than the world average of around 315gms/day(NDDB,2020).The dairy co-operatives had a difficult year due to an influx of more milk production, a reduction in milk sales, and the building of inventories of preserved goods. Throughout the year, milk procurement by dairy co-operatives increased as it accepted diverted extra milk from farmers that would otherwise be sold to private and unorganized businesses. During the 2020-21 budget year, milk procurement by dairy co-operativesincreased by 7.9 per cent. Indian dairy co operatives have installed milk processing capacity of 66.3million litters per day,73.3million liters/day in private sector enterprises, and 2.5 million litres per day in producer companies.

Introduction

Beekeeping is an environment friendly and agro-forestry based occupation that has established itself as an income generating activity and a commercial enterprise which not only promote agricultural and horticultural development but also contributes in upliftment of the rural economy of the country. Apiculture provides enormous potential for income generation, poverty alleviation and sustainable use of forest resources. Traditional beekeeping with Apisceranais widely practised by rural people in Uttarakhand who have inherited the tradition from their forefathers and maintain it till this day. The people in Uttarakhand have indigenous knowledge of beekeeping which is passed from one generation to another. In the hill area traditional hives are more suitable than modern hives. Modern beekeeping is infancy in the area, so people need to be encouraged to use modern bee hives for better management of colonies.

Uttarakhand is a land of variety of flora and fauna. Beekeeping forms an integral part of the small holder farming system and plays a significant role as a source of additional cash income in subsistence farming. There are around 2,50,000 beekeeping units in India out of which only 8,700 are in Uttarakhand accounting for about 2500 MT of honey production in 2016-17. Uttarakhand is extremely rich in Bee forage plants but the use of this rich resource is not being made properly (Tiwari, et al. 2010). Around 20.00 per cent of the Beekeepers in Uttarakhand do not use any medicine for the management of pest and diseases showing that the farmers are not much aware of the advance methods of beekeeping (Khan et al., 2007). Uttarakhand has huge potential for beekeeping due to plenty of flora and suitability of climate. Beekeeping is an ancient practice that is managed traditionally in Kumaon hills of Uttarakhand. Due to the traditional production system the productivity per hive is low in Uttarakhand. Therefore, it is Important to know about the constraintsfaced by the Beekeepers in practicing apiculture in Kumaon Hills of Uttarakhand.