eChapters

Every homemaker spends a chunk of her time in the kitchen. Kitchen is the most functional part of the house. It needs to be carefully designed. Kitchen ergonomics comes into play to make the kitchen a comfortable place to work. Kitchen ergonomics is all about minimizing the movements and stress we have to go through while cooking. While designing your kitchen you need to keep in mind the heights of various surfaces, distances and placement of items to make your space functional, efficient and enable effortless cooking.

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that caused the global COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) pandemic has claimed a considerable number of lives worldwide. The unanticipated global spread of SARS CoV-2 has resulted in serious issues within the medical systems and healthcare facilities. Creating efficient vaccines against the virus, even after all of efforts, has been on high priority and is time-taking due to the frequent mutations. A critical stage in vaccine development is figuring out the potential antigen. As a ground breaking technique introduced in 2000, Reverse vaccinology (RV) reduces the required time considerably from 5–15 years to 1–2 years in identifying antigens. Various RV tools are powered by big-data analytics, artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) techniques. AI and ML models have demonstrated their potentials in expediting the identification and refinement of novel antivirals or potent vaccination candidates. By utilising datasets available through several dedicated databases, it is more beneficial in identifying current medications that inhibit the human Coronavirus and next-gen healthcare possibilities.

In the digital age, social media platforms such as WhatsApp and Facebook have become powerful tools for spreading awareness and influencing public behaviour. Digital advertisements on social issues can effectively reach diverse audiences, spark conversations, and drive social change. Unlike traditional advertising, digital ads offer interactivity, customization, and precise audience targeting. This chapter explores the principles and strategies for designing impactful social issue advertisements on WhatsApp and Facebook.

Understanding the Audience

To design effective social advertisements, it is essential to analyze the audience’s demographics, behavior, and engagement patterns. Key considerations include:

Age Group: Younger audiences engage more with interactive and visually appealing content, while older audiences may prefer informative and text-based content.

Interests and Preferences: Understanding user interests through social media analytics helps tailor content to maximize impact

Food is an important item in the life of consumer as it has a direct bearing on the sustenance of life. The food safety or over concern on the health hazards was not considered as an issue until recently, particularly in the developing countries. This clearly indicates the shift in citizen’s mind from availability of food to quality of food. This along with the changes in the food habits and type of products available in the market for his consumption, the incidence of food borne illness across the globe and his concern for his health contributed significantly to the development of food safety in the food arena.

Until recently food safety domain and regulation were confined to the government and its regulatory machinery. The globalisation of food and food products and the passage of food across international borders paved way for the increased food safety concern across the globe and stressed the need for ensuring quality and safety of food in international trade. The incidence of food borne illness increased with increase in the appearance of more and more derived products started in the market (Sivapalasingam, Friedman, Cohen, & Tauxe, 2004; Tauxe, Doyle, Kuchenmüller, Schlundt, & Stein, 2010). The production along the value chain, from primary production to the retailing happen in the world under different agroclimate conditions, in varied production lines from sinle handler to community production to large scale mechanised production and such a diversity led to concerns in the food safety system (McCullough, Prabhu, & Kostas, 2008). The individual operators in the chain operates a food safety management system based on the availablity and to suit his requirement based on the basic principles laid down by natinal and International bodies like Codex Alimentarius Commission. Now when you see the market at large, has plenty of FSMS system which includes both from the governmental and private sectors. Therefore, Food Safety Management System (FSMS) is the result of the implementation of available and relevant quality assurance guidelines and standards availble and in the primary production it could be the implementation of good practices including good hygienic proactices, good aquacultural priactices which have proved effective in the food sector. On the production and trade sector this may include good manufacturing practices, good hygienic practices, probably including Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) principles. In the process the FSMS may include essentially all the activites from equipment, procedures, programs, tools, organizational measures, and people necessary to execute the control and assuranceactivities aimed at ensuring chemical and microbial safety of fresh produce.

Every garden has got specific purpose and utility. Specialized gardens are planned gardens according to various locations and fulfilling specific needs. Therefore, these should be designed envisaging primary requirements depending upon the types. Features of these are specific including plants and planting pattern. So, these gardens need to be dealt separately so that planning and execution is done in more systematic way focusing utilitarian and ornamental purposes.

Home Garden

Basically it is a piece of land attached to the home, beautified with different features, ornamental and flowering plants. The main purpose of this type of garden is beautification round the year and utility for relaxation of the family. Accordingly, design and features should be selected to fulfill the same.

Video titles play a critical role in grabbing viewers’ attention and establishing the tone and theme of the video. Adobe Photoshop, known for its robust text and graphic design capabilities, is an ideal tool for creating custom, professional video titles. In this chapter, we will explore the basics of title design, step-bystep instructions for using Photoshop to design titles, and tips to make text visually appealing and engaging for video content.
Introduction to Video Title Design
Video titles are the first visual cue that sets the audience’s expectations. An effective title is visually appealing, represents the video’s theme, and provides essential information, like the video’s name or segment titles. Adobe Photoshop allows designers to combine typography, graphics, and special effects, creating dynamic title sequences that draw viewers in.
Key Elements of Effective Title Design
• Font Choice: Selecting a font that suits the video’s theme is crucial. Serif fonts often suggest a formal tone, while sans-serif fonts are more modern and clean.

In the landscape of social advertising, large-format media like hoardings (billboards) and wall paintings offer unique opportunities to create high-impact, place-based campaigns that can transform urban and rural environments into powerful canvases for social change. These supersized communication platforms command attention through their sheer scale and integration with the physical environment, creating opportunities for messaging that digital and smaller print formats simply cannot match. This chapter explores the distinctive considerations, techniques, and best practices for designing social advertisements specifically for hoardings and wall paintings. We’ll examine how these formats differ from other advertising media, how to leverage their unique characteristics, and how to navigate the practical and creative challenges they present. Whether you’re planning a city-wide campaign using commercial billboards or a grassroots initiative using community wall paintings, understanding the specific demands of these formats is essential for creating effective social messaging.

Newspapers remain a powerful medium for social advertising despite the digital revolution. Their tangible nature, credibility, and broad reach make them particularly effective for communicating social messages to diverse demographics. This chapter explores the principles, strategies, and techniques for designing impactful social advertisements specifically for newspaper publication

Understanding the Newspaper Medium

Newspapers offer unique characteristics that influence advertisement design. Unlike digital media, newspaper ads exist in a physical space with specific technical constraints and opportunities

Physical Properties

• Limited color options (full color, spot color, or black and white) • Variable paper quality affecting image reproduction • Fixed column layouts and standard size

In an increasingly digital world, the physical poster remains a powerful medium for social advertising campaigns. Posters occupy public spaces, creating opportunities for engagement with audiences who might otherwise miss digital messaging. Whether displayed in community centers, on street corners, in transportation hubs, or on university campuses, a well-designed social advertisement poster can capture attention, convey crucial information, and inspire action toward social change. This chapter explores the essential principles and practices for designing effective social advertisement posters. We’ll examine how to balance visual impact with meaningful messaging, how to structure information hierarchically, and how to employ design elements strategically to maximize your poster’s effectiveness. The goal is to equip you with the knowledge to create posters that not only catch the eye but also touch the heart and motivate the mind.

1. Introduction

The term "sustainable development" was originally used in a 1953 article by Joseph L. that was published in Land Economics. The notion was employed to depict the degree or pace at which an environmentally friendly resource is employed for a particular objective while guaranteeing its long term availability. Organizational dynamics, social interactions, and cultural norms all change with the times. These changes are making environmental problems worse and bringing up questions about pollution and the requirement for a safe natural environment. They are being caused by changing human behavior and population expansion (Kami?ska, 2021; Gaffar et al., 2021). Organizations have been forced to review their approaches to dealing with these urgent environmental issues as a result of the increased awareness. Academic libraries have been particularly well-positioned to implement eco friendly practices because they are service-oriented establishments to adopt eco-friendly practices in their operations (Pangail, 2017).

ABSTRACT

With the advancement of mobile technology, the usage of mobile application has increased significantly which leads to change the life style of common people. Library is also not an exception in this context. Library and Information Science Professionals have started to incorporate the changes from the beginning of ICT advancement with an idea “library should be within thumb of people”. Mobile application plays vital role to fulfil the objective of library. Most of the library has started or planning to start the service to its user with various services effectively. But, the process to provide library service through mobile application is not satisfactory till date. No too much usage of libraries mobile apps can be seen; even which mobile applications are in use, most of them are almost inactive form.

But the various recent surveys show us the tremendous growth of the usage of mobile application among people. According to Google, (2017) the user survey shows that mobile can fast-track time to purchase by 20% through facilitating efficiencies in decision-making and enhanced team collaboration, particularly with more complex purchases.

The field of talent management continues to mature from agri-business to extension service, but it is also being impeded both by the scale of debates taking place. The field continues to agree that talent management “adds value” to the organisation such as extension system. To understand the development scenarios of strategic talent management, we need a “theory of value” to understand the elements of talent management which are the most valuable for business-led extension service (BLESS) effectiveness. “Theory of Value” is a generic term which encompasses all the theories within economics that although explain the exchange value (or) price of goods and services. Alternatively, “Value of Theory” encompasses a range of approaches in extension system to understand how, why, and to what degree humans should value things, whether the thing is person, idea, object, (or) anything else for effective functioning of strategic business-led extension service to sustain its clients system.

Isolation of RNA from Rat Liver
(Method of Schmidt and Thannhauser, 1945)
Principle

Most of the RNA (ribouncleic acid) of cells is found in the nucleoli and microsomes.These fractions of cells may be isolated by differential centrifugation of cellular homogenates and thus provide an enriched starting material for RNA extraction. Such methods require high speed  centrifugation. An alternate procedure used in the present method is to disrupt the whole cells by homogenization and isolate the nucleic acid of entire homogenate. This procedure consists of the following sequential steps.

Introduction

In the last two decades, sustainable agriculture has grown to become one of the most pressing issues in agriculture. Although there are numerous definitions of sustainable agriculture, most agree on three fundamental overlapping components: Ecological, economic, and social sustainability (Kaur 2013; Pilgeram 2013). Meanwhile, the prevalence of plant diseases is a major impediment to sustainable agricultural production systems worldwide, particularly in the tropics and subtropics. Farmers frequently apply agrochemicals (i.e., pesticides, insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, etc.) over their recommended dose to manage plant diseases, raising serious concerns about food safety, soil, environmental quality, and pesticide resistance (Dordas 2008; Kaur 2013).

Disease detection on plants is critical for sustainable agriculture, and manually monitoring plant diseases is difficult. It usually requires a significant amount of work, knowledge of plant diseases, and extended processing time. Early detection is the base for efficient plant disease prevention and control, and it is critical in agricultural production management and decision-making. Plant disease identification has become increasingly important in recent years (Li et al., 2021). Diseased plants usually have visible marks or lesions on their leaves, stems, flowers, or fruits. In general, each disease or pest condition has a distinct visible pattern that can be used to identify abnormalities. Typically, the leaves of plants are the primary source for identifying plant diseases, and most disease symptoms may first appear on the leaves (Ebrahimi et al., 2017). Rapid advances in biotechnology have resulted in the development of various molecular diagnostic tools over the last decade. These tools, which are based on the properties of nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) or proteins of the target agents, have improved the efficacy, accuracy, and speed of detecting and identifying disease-causing agents, as well as the characterization of a wide range of pathogens and pests. Various techniques are used in biotechnology for disease diagnosis and management, but molecular markers are used in particular for the detection, identification, quantification, and characterization of plant pathogens that cause diseases in plants (Kumar et al., 2015).

Radiation emitted from the radioactive isotopes can be detected and quantified by using several equipments and the details are furnished below:

A. Radiation Detection Devices

1. Electroscope

The electroscope is a simple device comprised of a metal rod with two thin leaves attached to one end. If the electroscope is given a negative charge, the metal leaves will separate from each other. It is the characteristic that makes the electroscope useful as a detection device. A negatively charged electroscope will discharge when ions in the air remove electrons from it, and consequently, a positively charged electroscope will discharge when it takes electrons from the air around it. The rate of discharge of the electroscope is a measure of ions in the air and can be used as a basis of measurement and detection.

Although some forms of electromagnetic energy, such as light and heat, can be detected by the human senses. One of the greatest draw backs to high energy radiation is the inability to detect it. We cannot see, feel, taste, smell, or hear the various forms of ionizing radiation. Fortunately, ionizing radiation interacts with matter which makes detection and measurement possible by utilizing specialized equipment. In this section we want to introduce you to the various ways and means of detecting and measuring ionizing radiation.

As mentioned previously, Becquerel discovered radioactivity because it left marks on photographic film as a means of detecting radiation. However, there are more definitive means commonly used by scientists and technicians who study and work with radiation. The equipment utilized for the detection and measurement of radiation commonly employs some type of a substance or material that responds to radiation. Many common methods use either an ionization process or molecular excitation process as a basis. Remember that we stated earlier that radiation interacts with matter. For detection and measurement purposes the process of ionization is the most commonly employed technique, based on the principle of charged particles producing ion pairs by direct interaction. These charged particles may collide with electrons, which remove them from their parent atoms, or transfer energy to an electron by interaction of electric fields.

12.1 Monitoring Strategies: Pre- and Post-Release
12.1.1 Introduction
Monitoring of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) or transgenic crops is a critical component of biosafety governance. It involves the systematic collection of scientific data to assess the presence, behavior, and potential impacts of transgenic organisms in controlled and natural environments. Monitoring strategies are divided into two principal stages:
1. Pre-release monitoring, which takes place during confined field trials, and
2. Post-release monitoring, conducted after commercial or environmental release.
These strategies ensure that transgenic technologies are introduced responsibly, maintaining human safety, ecosystem integrity, and regulatory compliance.
12.1.2 Objectives of Monitoring
• To evaluate the biosafety and efficacy of GMOs in different environments.
• To detect unexpected adverse effects on human health or the environment.
• To monitor gene flow, resistance development, or weediness.
• To ensure compliance with biosafety regulations, stewardship programs, and licensing agreements.
• To maintain public trust and provide transparency in GM deployment.

Abstract

The Nilgiri Mountains of South India is one of the Landslide prone hill ranges in India. The landslides, in general, are due to the independent, interdependent and the combined effects of natural earth system processes, triggering phenomenon and anthropogenic activities. So the scientists, technocrats and the academicians from all over the world have started studying the landslides using various techniques and advanced tools in mapping the morphology, preparing the vulnerability maps and carve out mitigation strategies. But the discrimination of active slides is a difficult task and also needs continuous monitoring and further a time consuming process too. So, in this context, an attempt has been made to study the signatures of active sliding in one of old slides namely the “LINGASLIDE” in which frequent minor sliding events are often reported. In the study, Total station based large scale topographic survey was carried out in LINGASLIDE and from the same 50 cm topographic contours were generated. From such large scale contours, Digital elevation Model (DEM) was generated and from the DEM, shaded relief map was generated.Uutilizing both the contours and shaded relief maps, small slides were mapped in the LINGASLIDE from the well exhibited subsidiary crowns, toes and the traverse cracks. Resistivity tomography surveys were also carried out along two longitudinal profiles and one traverse profile to identify the subsurface geology, the slip surface and the zones of moisture accumulations, if any. The subsidiary crowns, toes, the conjugate fracture systems and the resistivity tomography showed that the LINGASLIDE is active and the sliding is going on towards easterly because of the easterly compression,resulted from the higher slopes caused by the settlements raised over Lingaslide and the obstruction provided by the retaining walls at the toes in the east. Such compressive forces are clear from the NW-SE and NE-SW fractures seen in Lingaslide and the sliding is clear from the cracks seen and monitored in the buildings constructed over Lingaslide.

1 Detection of Starch Introduction

Starch is widely available in several forms such as wheat flour, corn flour and commercially manufactured starch. It is extensively used by adulterators to raise the SNF content in the milk. When high amounts of starch are added to milk, it can cause diarrhea due to the indigestion of starch in colon. Apart from this, accumulation of starch in the body may prove very fatal for diabetic patients. In this method, starch in milk can be detected by using iodine solution. Iodine from the iodine solution gets absorbed on the starch molecule surface and resultant product of adsorption has deep blue colour.

Reagents

 • Potassium iodide

 • Iodine solution - 1% (Add 1 g of iodine and 5 g of potassium iodide in

distilled water and dilute to 100 ml)

Introduction

Spoilage in agricultural products due to mould growth can occur at various stages of production and storage and is significant in terms of trade economics, food safety and public health (Shephard, 2008). It has been reported that 5–10 % of agricultural products in the world are spoiled by mould contamination to the extent that they cannot be consumed by humans or animals. Mould growth decreases the quality of food and also creates a potential risk for human health because of the production of toxic secondary metabolites known as “mycotoxins”. Foods contaminated by mycotoxins, when consumed by humans and animals causes a disease called “mycotoxicosis”, resulting in death (Wagacha and Muthomi, 2008).

Isolation of Peripheral Blood Lymphocytes

Chemicals

1. Heparin

2. Sterile PBS (pH 7.2)

3. Histopaque-1077

4. RPMI-1640 Media

Protocol

Collect 5 ml of blood from the animal in 1 ml (20 IU/ml of blood) of diluted heparin and add 2 ml of PBS. Layer over the diluted blood on 5 ml of histopaque-1077 in 15 ml centrifuge tube and centrifuge at 1500 rpm for 40 min. Collect the buffy coat at the interface of plasma and histopaque in separate centrifuge tubes. Wash the cells thrice with PBS and suspended in 2 ml of RPMI-1640 media supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum. Determine the percentage cell viability by 0.1% trypan blue exclusion test, using hemocytometer. Finally dilute the cell suspension to 106 cells/ml in RPMI 1640 medium.

Injudicious and indiscriminate use of several agrochemicals viz. pesticides, herbicides, insecticides, dyes and medicaments in the field of agriculture and veterinary practices threatens the human and animal population for the toxicity of these environmental deterrents. These agrochemicals have been associated with several episodes of accidental poisoning and mortality among human and animal population. The episode of Mass ethion poisoning in Gujarat is one of the commonest example of inclusion of pesticides or agrochemicals in the environmental pollutants. There are modern tools to evaluate and analyze these chemicals in the environmental pollutants of human and animal use. The sensitivity of these modern highly sophisticated tools has now immensely changed the analytical environmental pollutants industry. Gas chromatography and Mass Spectrophotometry i.e. (GC-MS) technique is employed to detect the volatile residues from environmental pollutants. Whereas, High performance liquid chromatography i.e. HPLC is employed to analyse and detect non volatile drug residues. Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) instrument separates chemical mixtures (the GC component) and identifies the components at a molecular level (the MS component). It is one of the most accurate tools for analyzing environmental samples.

ABSTRACT

Genetic relationships were estimated among twenty five ashgourd (Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn.) landraces of different types using PCR-based random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers. The molecular survey of the ashgourd germplasm by RAPD using three random primers resulted in twenty scorable bands (average of 6.66 bands per primer) of which two were monomorphic and rest, 18 were polymorphic (90.0%). Pair-wise genetic similarities among the landraces determined using Jaccard’s coefficient ranged from 0.14 to 1.00. The dendrogram based on clustering matrix separated the landraces with morphologically distinct smooth textured fruits from waxy textured fruits and the former group showed less divergence than the latter. With in the group of waxy textured fruits, limited variation was detected among landraces with small and medium sized fruits. Further, morphologically similar landraces with large fruits form distinct clusters with in the major clusters. The study demonstrated the usefulness of the RAPD marker analysis in effectively assessing the genetic relationship present among the ashgourd landraces examined.

ABSTRACT

Genetic variability was assessed among twenty five distinct drumstick (Moringa oleifera Lam.) landraces using PCR based random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers. Genomic DNA extracted from tender leaves was used for RAPD analysis. Thirty five primers were screened and based on the number of bands three primers were selected. The primers produced 34 bands, of which 58 % (20 bands) were polymorphic. The data were analysed using NTSYS pc 2.1 software. The similarity matrix constructed using Jaccard’s coefficient method was subjected to cluster analysis using UPGMA (Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean) and dendrogram was generated. The pair wise coefficient values in the genetic similarity matrix among the landraces varied between 0.28 and 1.00. The dendrogram based on the matrix separated the landraces with distinct morphological characters and it was noted that the cluster formation was not fully in agreement with the geographical location. The study showed the use of RAPD markers in detecting genetic variability present among the drumstick landraces studied.

ABSTRACT

A number of secondary metabolites are produced by cyanobacteria involving the non-ribosomal peptide biosynthetic pathway. Some of these compounds have potential biotechnological applications, whereas others (the cyanotoxins) are undesired due to their toxicity to animals. The occurrence of toxic cyanobacterial blooms in freshwater bodies that are used as source for human consumption, recreation and irrigation are frequent nowadays due to increasing artificial eutrophication of these environments. It is important to monitor toxin-producing strains in order to prevent the adverse effects caused by their toxins to human and animal health. Thus, the development of rapid and sensitive methods for the detection of cyanotoxins is important as they could be useful to monitor water supplies and contribute for watershed monitoring strategies. Current methods include cell counting, microscopic identification and toxin analysis by biochemical and analytical techniques. However, in recent years, molecular biology techniques, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), have been used to amplify specific regions within biosynthetic genes for rapid and sensitive identification of toxic cyanobacteria. The aim of this chapter is to provide an update of cyanotoxin biosynthesis and discuss the advances and limitations of molecular biology regarding its application as indicative of cyanotoxin production.

Introduction

The most common method of bacterial transformation utilizes high levels of calcium chloride to facilitate the entry of plasmid DNA vectors into E.coli in conjunction with structural alteration of the bacterial cell wall. In general, there are three basic steps in the introduction of plasmid DNA unto cells.

1. Preparation of “competent” cells to enable cells to accept DNA.
2. Transformation of these competent cells, and
3. Selection of transformants.

Most E.coli strains exhibit transformation efficiency (measured as transformants per microgram plasmid DNA) in the range of 10⁵ to 10⁸.

The factors influencing this efficiency depends upon the condition that render cells competent.

Abstract
Infectious diseases pose significant threats to global aquaculture, causing substantial economic losses exacerbated by intensive farming practices. RNA viruses, including birnavirus, nodavirus, rhabdovirus, and others, infect both wild and cultured fish, leading to severe mortalities. This study focused on detecting two RNA viruses, Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus (IHNV) and Spring Viremia of Carp Virus (SVCV), using the TRIZOL reagent method. Fish samples, including Tilapia, Mrigal, Catla, and Minor carp, were observed for clinical symptoms and dissected to collect organs like kidney and spleen. RNA extraction was performed using TRIZOL, followed by cDNA synthesis and PCR amplification targeting specific viral genes. Gel electrophoresis confirmed the absence of IHNV and SVCV in all samples tested. This comprehensive methodology ensures efficient surveillance and early detection of viral infections in aquaculture, thereby enhancing disease management strategies and economic sustainability. The findings indicate a current absence of IHNV and SVCV in the studied fish populations, emphasizing the importance of ongoing monitoring to safeguard aquatic health.
Keywords: (RNA Viruses, Trizol reagent method, Viral detection)

Remote sensing has proved its credibility beyond doubt in natural resources survey and environmental monitoring owing to its synoptivity, multispectral photographic capability and repetitive coverage. While its synoptivity gives unbiased information on the regional panorama of the earth surface, its multispectral possibility aids precise interpretation of various objects, as different terrestrial objects exhibit various spectral responses in different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. Amongst various terrestrial objects, water has a characteristic spectral response of its own, i.e. it permits the blue / red part of EMR (electromagnetic radiation, 0.4-0.8 µm) to penetrate inside. On the contrary, it totally absorbs the infrared part of EMR (0.8-1.5 µm). As such blue/red part of EMR penetrates the water bodies, the impurities and suspended sediments are seen very clearly in various shades of gray as and when the water bodies are shallow. Many workers, therefore, have used blue / red band of the satellite data in such water-quality studies^l-3. Hardy⁴ has observed that the infrared light in the spectral regions of 0.6-1.4 µm has the potential to map the turbidity in the ocean water, whereas Kritakos et al ⁵ have used the rationed data of visible and near infrared bands (0.4-1.1 µm) and obtained better results for water quality monitoring. Keeping such facts in mind, the blue/red band (band 2) of the IRS 1A satellite data was used to configurate the bathymetry along Madras coast in Bay of Bengal (Figure 1 a).

In the present study, the IRS lA band 2 data (0.52-0.59 µm) of March 1991 was used and subjected to edge enhancement studies for the coastal zone of Madras (Figure 1 a). Such edge enhancement normally sharpens the edges of two contrasting objects or sharpens the edges of objects of contrasting relief. In such edge enhanced data, few

A detention reservoir temporarily stores storm runoff and releases it gradually at a controlled rate, thereby reducing the peak discharge reaching downstream channels and communities. Unlike a conventional conservation reservoir, its principal function is short-term flood moderation rather than permanent water storage. Its performance depends on basin capacity, inlet and outlet arrangements, catchment response, design storm, allowable downstream discharge, and available drawdown time. This chapter explains the concept, purposes, and functioning of detention reservoirs and distinguishes them from ordinary storage reservoirs. It covers their classifications, site requirements, storage estimation, outlet design, routing principles, benefits, limitations, maintenance, and application in rural watersheds, urban drainage systems, and integrated flood-control programmes.

To overcome the limitation of proximate analysis P.J. Van Soest in 1963 developed a method which makes use of the concept that the dry matter of plant origin consists of two principal parts:
    1.    Cell contents 
    2.    Cell wall contents

The method is efficient to take care of the defects in the principle of estimating crude fiber and NFE by proximate analysis. Van Soest has partitioned the carbohydrates into various fractions by a system of analysis using detergents. Cell contents are soluble in neutral detergent includes lipids, sugars, organic acids, starch, soluble proteins, NPN compounds and other water soluble materials, where as cell wall (fiber) is insoluble in neutral detergent but it is soluble in acid detergent includes hemicelluloses, cellulose, lignin, lignified nitrogen compounds, heat damages proteins, keratins and silica. This method of partitioning carbohydrate is essential to be expressed in case of ruminants, due to their capacities for making use of different fractions of crude fibre especially the cellulose and hemicellulose, while the simple stomached animals can rarely do so. 

Water is one of the most important production assets and securing access to and control and management of water is key to enhance livelihood base of any country like India where most people depends on agriculture. India is endowed with rich and vast diversity of natural resources, water being one among them. But water resources in India are unevenly distributed over the country. The more than 50 per cent of the total resources distributed with five states namely Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and West Bengal (MWR, 2008) and left other states much prone to water scarcity.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is the most important source of varietal deterioration during seed production.
2. _____ in oats is caused due to mutation.
3. In peas, _____ is caused due to mutation.
4. _____ is another most important source of varietal deterioration due to introgression to genes from unrelated stocks.
5. _____ is the major source of genetic contamination and varietal deterioration in cross fertilized crop.

Genetic purity (trueness to type) of a variety can deteriorate due to several factors during production cycles. The best means to insure genetic purity therefore, would be to overcome to the greatest possible extent the various factors responsible for genetic deterioration. The important factors of apparent and real deterioration of varieties as listed by Kadam (1942) are as follows:

Developmental variations

Mechanical mixtures

Mutations

Natural crossing

Minor genetic variations

Selective influence of diseases

The technique of the plant breeder

Introduction

Organic farming is an inclusive system of producing high-quality products through such processes which have the least impairment on the environment, humans, plants, or animal health. Thus, the term in its essence concentrates on sustainability in the farm management practices and food production system. Chopra et al. (2013) in their study defined organic farming as a management & ecological production system that not only promotes biodiversity but also benefits biological cycles and soil nutrition activities. It focuses on minimal use of pesticides and encourages those farm practices that restore balance, and increase ecological harmony. 

Abstract

Training is essential but expensive. Hence, training impact is a crucial measure. National Agricultural Research System (NARS), India employs about 30000 scientists. To effectively manage such huge scientific-capital, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) establishedCentres for Advanced Faculty Training (CAFT) and National Academy of Agricultural Research Management (NAARM). CAFT train faculty of State Agricultural Universities (SAUs), while NAARM trains scientists of ICAR institutes and SAUs. Assessing impact of these training programmes becomes essential. Application of knowledge, skills and attitude (KSA) acquired during training back at job environment is training-transfer that addresses learning, behaviour and results levels of training impact. This chapter critically analyses training-transfer of NAARM and CAFT programmes, suggests empirical framework to enhance impact of NAARM and CAFT programmes and thus contributes to literature. Policy strategies suggested in this paper hold wider applicability.

Wood apple (Feronialimonia) commonly known as Bael in various Indian sub-continent languages is the most under-utilised fruit despite of its aromatic flavor, high nutritional components and important medicinal values. Reason may be due to challenge in harnessing the pulp from the fruit. It is considered under seasonal fruit but it has long duration of shelf-life as compared to other fruits.The physic-chemical characteristics revealed that it has high shell weight of 55.67% as compared to pulp weight of 43.77% (Devi et al. 2018).

55.1. Aim

To determine dietary fibres in given samples.

55.2. Theory

Fibres can be classified into four categories like crude fibre (cellulose); acid detergent fibre (cellulose + lignin); neutral detergent fibre (cellulose + lignin + hemicelluloses) and total dietary fibre.

55.3. Procedure for estimation of dietary fibre

55.3.1. Acid detergent fibre (ADF)

Reagents: Cetyl tri-methyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) reagent and Acetone

Apparatus: Digestion apparatus vacuum pump, oven, desiccator and sintered glass crucible.

Purpose: The organic acids present in fruits and vegetables influence the flavour, colour, keeping quality and maturity. The maturity standards are determined by the acid and sugar ratio. The total acidity (citric acid) is determined by titrating the juice against standard alkali solution.

Equipments and chemicals: 10 ml., pipette, 25ml. Burette, small glass funnel, dropper, juice extractor, distilled water, 100ml. volumetric flask, burette stand, beaker, N/10 sodium hydroxide, filter paper, phenolphthalein indicator (one gram of phenolphthalein in 100ml. of 95% ethyl alcohol)

High-performance liquid chromatography or high-pressure liquid chromato graphy (HPLC) is a chromatographic method that is used to separate a mixture of compounds in analytical chemistry and biochemistry so as to identify, quantify or purify the individual components of the mixture. It involves the injection of a small volume of liquid sample into a tube packed with tiny particles (1.8- to 5-micron (μm) particle size called the stationary phase) where individual components of the sample are moved down the packed tube (column) with a liquid (mobile phase) forced through the column by high pressure delivered by a pump. These components are separated from one another by the column packing that involves various chemical and/or physical interactions between their molecules and the packing particles. These separated components are detected at the exit of this tube (column) by a flow-through device (detector) that measures their amount. An output from this detector is called a “liquid chromatogram”.

Aflatoxins are toxic and carcinogenic compounds produced as metabolites by many Aspergillus species. This fungus invades habitats such as soil, grain, nuts, or decaying vegetation when- ever suitable conditions such as high moisture and temperature are met. B1 is the most toxic of at least 14 different types of naturally occurring aflatoxins. Therefore, many countries and regulatory agencies impose strict limits on B1 as well as other common aflatoxins such as B2, G1, and G2 despite exhibiting lower toxicity. The U.S. FDA set the action level to20 μg/kg (ppb) for human food and to 300 μg/kg (ppb) for animal feed. Aflatoxin B1 is extremely widespread and is present in food and feed products such as cottonseed, corn, and peanuts. It is highly toxic and has been classified as a group 1 carcinogen by the WHO. The aflatoxins B2 , G1 , and G2 are usually found accompanying B1 , in lower concentrations in the contaminated samples. The order of toxicity is AFB1 > AFG1 > AFB2> AFG2.

Aim

To determine the angle of repose of the given biological materials.

Materials required

Angle of repose apparatus
Grains
Scale

Aim

To determine the area of the field by intersection method using a prismatic compass.

To determine the included angle of the closed polygon.

Materials required

Prismatic Compass

Tripod

Measuring tape

Arrows

Ranging Rods

Aim

To determine the area of given field by intersection method of plane table survey.

Materials required

Tripod

Plane table

Plumbing fork

Level tube

Magnetic compass

Alidade

Measuring tape

Ranging rods

Drawing sheet

Pins, pencil and eraser

Aim

Studies on plane table survey instruments

To determine the area of given open field by radiation method of plane table survey.

Plane table survey

Plane table surveying is a simple method of surveying for determination of area of field. The plane table survey is quite suitable for plotting small-scale and medium scale mappings directly in the field where great accuracy is not required. It is also used for plotting the topographical maps in the field. The plane table survey is generally more rapid and less costly than other types of survey.

In this survey, a plane table is used for taking the measurements and for plotting the plan in the field. Plane table surveying is a method in which the field observations and plotting of the plan proceed simultaneously. The plotted map can be compared with the actual features in the field. Errors in measurements and plotting can be easily detected in the field by taking suitable check lines.

Aim

To determine the area of given field by intersection method of plane table survey.

Materials required

Tripod

Plane table

Plumbing fork

Level tube

Magnetic compass

Alidade

Measuring tape

Ranging rods

Drawing sheet

Pins, pencil and eraser

Aim

To determine the area of given field by triangulation method of chain survey

Materials required

Metric chain

Measuring tape

Ranging rods

Chain pins

Aim

To find out the area of given field by cross-staff survey method

Materials required

Cross-staff

Metric chain

Measuring tape

Ranging rods

Chain pins

Aim

To determine the area of the given field by radiation method using a prismatic compass.

Materials required

Prismatic Compass

Tripod

Measuring tape

Arrows

Ranging Rods

Materials Required

Sample, reagents, beakers, conical flasks, pestle and mortar, funnels, volumetric flasks, pipettes, weighing balance, spectrophotometer/colorimeter.

Reagents

    1.    2% Metaphosphoric Acid Solution: Weigh 20 g of HPO₃ and dilute to 1 litre in water or 4% oxalic acid.
    2.    Dye Solution: Dissolve 100 mg of 2, 6 Dichlorophenol-indophenol dye (Phenolindo-2,6- dichlorophenol sodium salt, AR, C₁₂H₆Cl₂NNaO₂ 2-3H₂O) and 84 mg of sodium bicarbonate (sodium hydrogen carbonate AR, NaHCO₃) in hot (85-95ºC) distilled water. Cool and make up the vol 100 ml. Filter and dilute 25 ml of the dye to 500 ml with distilled water. 
    3.    Standard Ascorbic Acid: Weigh 50 mg of ascorbic acid (AR) and make up to 50 ml with 2% metaphosphoric acid or 4% Oxalic acid solution (1000 ppm i.e. 1000 µg/ml). Dilute 4 ml of this solution to 100 ml with 2% HPO₃ or 4% oxalic acid. (1ml = 40 µg ascorbic acid).

Principle: Sample extract in oxalic acid is titrated against standard sodium 2, 6 dichlorophenolindophenol dye to a faint pink colour which persists for 5-10 seconds.

(Indophenols Method)