eChapters

Introduction
This method consists of mixing the microorganisms in a small amount of India ink or nigrosine and spreading the mixture over a clean slide. These two pigments are not really bacterial stain and do not penetrate the microorganisms. These pigments make the background dark thus making organisms transparent against dark background. This method is useful for determining cell morphology and accurate size as no shrinkage of cells due to heat.
Materials
1. Bacterial culture (B. subtilis)
2. Microscopic slides (Clean, Grease Free)
3. Inoculating needle
4. Cedar wood oil
5. Microscope
6. Xylene

A. Gram’s Staining
Introduction
The most widely used staining procedure in microbiology is the Gram stain, discovered by the Danish scientist and physician Hans Christian Joachim Gram in 1884. Gram staining is a differential staining technique that differentiates bacteria into two groups: gram-positives and gram-negatives. The procedure is based on the ability of microorganisms to retain color of the stains used during the gram stain reaction. Gram-negative bacteria are decolorized by the alcohol, losing the color of the primary stain, purple. Gram positive bacteria are not decolorized by alcohol and will remain as purple. After decolorization step, a counterstain is used to impart a pink color to the decolorized gramnegative organisms.
The Gram stain procedure enables bacteria to retain color of the stains, based on the differences in the chemical and physical properties of the cell wall.
1. Gram positive bacteria: Stain dark purple due to retaining the primary dye called Crystal Violet in the cell wall. Example: Staphylococcus aureus
2. Gram negative bacteria: Stain red or pink due to retaining the counter staining dye called Safranin

A. Morphological Examination of Bacterial Samples
Introduction
Bacteria are most widely distributed, the simplest in morphology, the smallest in size and difficult to identify. They are prokaryotic and a few are photosynthetic. Most bacteria are only 0.5 to 2.0 μm in diameter. Bacteria are generally rod, spherical or curved shaped. Rod shaped bacteria may vary considerably in length, have square round or pointed ends and may be motile or non-motile. The spherical or coccus shaped bacteria may occur single, in pairs in tetrads, in chains or in regular masses. The helical and curved shaped bacteria exist as slender spirochetes, spirillum and bent rods (vibrios). In this exercise the ubiquitousness of these organisms will be demonstrated in the air and water, on body and in mouth etc.
Materials
1. Petri plates containing nutrient agar
2. Sterile cotton swabs
3. Sterile water blank
4. Tube of nutrient broth
5. Materials for simple staining

Introduction
This method is used to determine the ‘total bacterial count’ (living and dead  organisms) by direct microscopic examination in samples of broth culture, cell suspension and milk. Simple and Gram’s staining techniques are used to stain the cells. This method is simple and a rapid. A known volume (0.01 ml) of the sample is spread over a known area (1cm2) on a glass slide. The sample is allowed to dry; then stained and examined microscopically. The average number of cells per field is determined and is then calculated by applying microscopic factor.
Materials
1. Microscopic slide with one sq. cm. area marked
2. Breed’s pipette (0.01 ml)
3. Methylene blue or Newman’s stain
4. Culture of E.coli or Bacillus subtilis
Procedure
1. Measure the diameter of microscopic field with a stage micrometer using oil immersion objective and 10X eye piece.
2. Area of field πr2.
Determination of microscopic factor (MF)

Introduction
Some species of rod shaped bacteria e.g. E.coli, Ps. fluorescence, Bacillus subtilis are known to be motile. Bacterial motility is generally associated with the presence of hair-like appendages called “Flagella”. There are several ways for determining the motility of a culture such as the wet mount method, hanging drop method and a culture method (on semisolid medium). Bacterial cells in suspension also exhibit a vibratory or oscillatory movement without changing their relative position. This is termed ’Brownian Movement’ and it should not be confused for true motility of bacteria. In motility the cells change their relative position and move across the microscopic field in different directions.
1. The Wet Mount Technique
This is the simplest and quickest way to determine the motility of bacteria.
Materials
1. Clean glass slide
2. Broth culture of bacteria (E.coli, Ps.fluroscenes)
3. Cover glass
Procedure
1. Place a drop of organisms on clean glass slide and cover with a cover glass.
2. Examine the slide with phase contrast microscope or bright field microscope with reduced light under oil-immersion.

Introduction
The characteristics of bacteria used in the study and identification of bacteria depend upon the behavior of populations or cultures rather than of individual organisms. Nutrient materials provided in a form, suitable for growth, are known as culture media. A Growth Media or culture medium is a liquid or gel designed to support the growth of microorganisms or cells.
I. Types of Culture Media
Different types of culture media may be used for cultivation of microorganisms such as liquid, solid and semi-solid.
i) Liquid Culture Media: Includes nutrient broth, Glucose broth, litmus milk etc. these media are used for the preparation of large number of microorganisms, fermentation studies and various other tests.
ii) Solid Media: A little agar, gelatin or silica gel; is added to a liquid medium to impart a degree of firmness to it. Nutrient agar, Blood agar, etc. are examples of solid media that are used for developing surface colony growth of bacteria and mold.
iii) Agar Slant Media: Test tubes or small bottles containing about 5ml. of solid medium, e.g. nutrient agar, dissolved and allowed to cool in a sloping position.
iv) Stab Media: Tubes or bottles containing agar medium are allowed to solidify in the upright position.
v) Semi solid Media: These are more jelly like due to lower percentage of the solidifiers. These media are particularly used for determining motility of bacteria.

Introduction
Microbiology techniques are used for various objectives like:
• To observe and isolate the micro-flora
• To test the microbiological quality of various food and dairy products
• To find the presence of any particular pathogenic microorganism
• To maintain a pure or mixed culture of specific microorganisms
1. Serial Dilution Techniques
• Bacteria are often present in such huge numbers that they can be difficult to count. Yet accurate counts are necessary for a variety of reasons like, for instance, assessing the quality of water or the safety of food. There are a number of counting techniques but most rely on the dilution of the sample to reduce the bacterial numbers down to a quantity that can be counted accurately.
• All bacterial plate count methods require the sample to be serially diluted until an estimated count of 30-300 colony forming units (CFU) on the plate is obtained. Plates with more than 300 CFU are very difficult to count. Plates with less than 30 CFU are not statistically reliable.
• If turbidity is observed in a broth culture, it might have millions more bacteria than you need. If this turbid broth is used directly for plating, all the CFU would grow together into a confluent mass and we would not be able to distinguish one colony from another.

Introduction
In order to study the cultural, morphological and physiological characteristics of an individual species, a pure culture of the microorganisms is required. Several different methods of separating the microorganisms from a mixed culture are available. The two most frequently used methods involve making a pour plate and/or streak plate. Isolated colonies are obtained from individual organisms after incubation.
Streak Plate Method
Plating is generally applied to the inoculation of a medium in petridish. Streak plate method is best for the separation of organisms from a mixed culture. In this method, agar medium is allowed to solidify as a thin layer in a petri dish and culture is streaked on the surface of agar medium and allowed to incubate to get isolated colonies.
Materials
1. Sterile petri plate
2. Wire loop
3. Nutrient agar medium
4. Bunsen burner
5. Mixed culture of E.coli and Micrococcus leutus

A. Enumeration of Different Microflora of Soil
Introduction
Agriculturally, soil is the region which supports the plant life by providing mechanical support and nutrients required for growth. From the microbiologist view point, soil is one of the most dynamic sites of biological interactions in the nature. Soil is an admixture of five major components viz. organic matter, mineral matter, soil-air, soil water and soil microorganisms/living organisms. The amount/ proposition of these components varies with locality and climate.

The soil organisms are broadly classified in two group’s viz. soil flora and soil fauna, the detailed classification of which is as follows.
1) Soil flora
a) Microflora Bacteria, Fungi, Molds, Yeast, Mushroom, Actinomycetes, Streptomyces, Algae e.g. BGA, Yellow Green algae, Golden brown algae.
b) Macroflora

(A) Enumeration of Microbial Growth by Turbidity Measurement
Method and Estimation of Generation Time
Introduction
Bacterial growth usually refers to reproduction-increase in population sizerather than to enlargement of mycelia cells. “Reproduction in bacteria occurs mainly through binary (binary means one cell becomes two) or transverse fission that results in the formation of two daughter cells. This is repeated at intervals by each new daughter cell in turn, or with each successive round of division. The population increases (Fig. 1). The time required for a complete fission cycle i.e. parent cell to two daughter cells is called the generation or doubling time. In bacteria, it is a doubling process in which each new fission cycle or generation increases the population by a factor of 2. So the parent stage consists of 2 cells, the second of 4, then 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256 and so on (Fig. 2). Thus the population will double, over and over again as long as the environment remains favorable for growth. The length of generation time is a measure of the growth rate of an organism. The average generation time in bacteria is 30-60 minutes under optimum conditions. Some species have very rapid growth rate and short generation time (5-10 minutes) and others have very slow growth rates and long generation times (measured in days). Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella enteritidis, both causes of food poisoning, are examples of pathogens having relatively short doubling times of 20-30 minutes, which result in a few million cells from a few cells in a few hours in the infested food. The longest generation time occurs in species of Mycobacterium, particularly Mycobacterium leprae (the cause of leprosy) of 10-30 days as long as in some animals.

(A) Effect of Temperature
Introduction
Temperature is one of the most important physical factors affecting microorganisms. Bacteria are different from higher plants and animals in the lack of homeostatic mechanism and cannot regulate heat generated by metabolism and are, therefore, directly and readily affected by temperature. Over a limited temperature range, there is a two-fold increase in the rate of enzyme catalyzed reaction for every 10°C rise in temperature.
Bacteria may be divided into three major groups with respect to their temperature requirements: (i) Psychrophiles, those with optimum temperature between 0°C and 20°C; (ii) Mesophiles, with optimum temperature between 20ºC and 40°C and (iii) Thermophiles, with optimum temperature between 40°C and 80°C. Thermophiles are of two types: (a) Facultative thermophiles with an optimum temperature of growth between 45°C and 60°C and (b) Obligate thermophiles with optimum temperature above 60°C. Temperatures in the range between 50°C and 100°C are normally in the lethal range for bacterial cells and spores. The range of temperature preferred by bacteria is genetically determined, resulting in enzymes with different temperature requirements.
Each organism grows within a particular temperature range (i.e. cardinal temperature points). The minimum growth temperature is the lowest temperature at which growth of a species will occur. The highest temperature at which a species can grow is its maximum growth temperature, and a species grows fastest at its optimum growth temperature.  Time of exposure is a vital factor in assessing the

Introduction
A) Cultivation of Fungi
A fungus is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from the other eukaryotic life kingdoms of plants and animals. A characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants, bacteria, and some protests is chitin in their cell walls. Similar to animals, fungi are heterotrophy; they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, typically by secreting digestive enzymes into their environment. Fungi do not photosynthesize. Growth is their means of mobility, except for spores (a few of which are flagellated), which may travel through the air or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems. These and other differences place fungi in a single group of related organisms, named the Eumycota (true fungi or Eumycetes), which share a common ancestor (form a monophyleticgroup), an interpretation that is also strongly supported by molecular phylogenetics. This fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes (slime molds) and oomycetes (water molds). The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology. In the past, mycology was regarded as a branch of botany, although now known fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants.

Ornamental horticulture is the branch of horticulture concerned with cultivating plants of all kinds for show and to satisfy the eye rather than for food (Bailey, 1960). It includes floriculture, the culture of trees for shades, display and landscape gardening. Gill (1988) defined taxonomy as a study aimed at producing a system of classification of biological organisms, which best reflects the totality of their similarities and differences. According to
him, there are three inter-related aspects of taxonomy namely: Identification, Nomenclature and Classification. Identification deals with the determination of a taxon as being identical or similar to another and already known organisms. Nomenclature on the other hand has to do with determination of the correct name for the organisms and is governed by International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. It permits only a single valid name for each plant. Classification is the placing of plants in groups or categories according to particular plan or system.
The objectives of taxonomy are to provide: a convenient method of identifying, naming and describing plants, a classification which as far as possible express the natural relationships of organisms, detect evolution at work, discovering its processes and interpreting its results, an inventory of plant resources-local, regional and continental and to provide an integrating and unifying role in the training of biology.

The concept of Centers of Origin given by Russian scientist N.I. Vavilov (1935) is based on his studies of vast collection of plants at the Institute of Plant  Industry, Leningrad. According to him, crop plants evolved from wild species in the areas showing great diversity and termed them as primary Centers of Origin; but in some areas, certain crop species show considerable diversity of forms although they did not originate their, such areas are known as secondary center of origin of these species. He identified 8 primary centers (Chinese, Indian, Inner Asiatic, Asia Minor, Mediterranean, Abyssinian, South Mexico, Central America and South America Andes Center) and three sub-centers (Indo-Malayan, Chilean and Brazilian-Paraguayan sub-center) of origin for crop plants. Basilevskaya (1960) first investigated the geographical origin of garden plants. Coats (1968) who first stressed out the ornamental herbs whereas Hui-Lin-Li (1974) wrote about the introduction of woody plants. According to Tay (2007) survey of thirty common flowers and their related species show a similar pattern of concentrated occurrence of species in certain geographic regions.
Exploration and exploitation of gene centers need to be proceed with the systematic cooperation of taxonomists, geneticists and plant pathologists. The 17 centers of origin identified for different flower and ornamental crops are
given (Table 2.1)

3.1. History and Development of Plant Classification
The botanical term “Angiosperm”, from the Ancient Greek ‘angeíon’ (receptacle, vessel) and seed, was coined in the form Angiospermae by Paul Hermann in 1690, as the name of that one of his primary divisions of the plant
kingdom.
This included flowering plants possessing seeds enclosed in capsules, distinguished from his Gymnospermae, or flowering plants with achenial or schizocarpic fruits, the whole fruit or each of its pieces being here regarded as a seed and naked.
Its use with any approach to its modern scope only became possible after 1827, when Robert Brown established the existence of truly naked ovules in the Cycadeae and Coniferae, and applied to them the name gymnosperms. From that time onwards, so long as these Gymnosperms were, as was usual, reckoned as dicotyledonous flowering plants, the term Angiosperm was used antithetically by botanical writers, with varying scope, as a group-name for other dicotyledonous plants.
In 1851, Hofmeister discovered the changes occurring in the embryo-sac of flowering plants, and determined the correct relationships of these to the Cryptogamia

This deals with the description, identification and naming of plants, and their classification into different groups according to their resemblances and differences, mainly in their morphological characteristics. So far as angiosperms or higher ‘flowering plants’ are concerned, it has been estimated that over 199,000 species are already known to us, and that thousands mor have yet to be discovered and recorded. The object of systematic botany or taxonomy is to describe, name and classify plants in such a manner that their relationship with regard to their descent from a common ancestry may be brought out. The ultimate object of classification is to arrange plants in such a way as to give us an idea of their phylogenetic relationships, i.e. the sequence of their origin and evolution from simpler, earlier and more primitive types to more complex, recent and advanced types during different periods. The earlier classification of plants were based on their economic uses, e.g. medicinal plants, cereals, fibre yielding plants, oil yielding plants, etc. or on gross structural resemblances, e.g. herbs, shrubs, trees, climbers, etc. These classifications were incomplete and fragmentary as plants that did not fit into such classifications or were of no economic value were usually ignored. Therefore, an ideal system of classification should not only indicate the actual genetic relationship but should also be reasonably convenient for practical purposes.

5.1 Fundamentals of Plant Nomenclature
(A) Plant Nomenclature
5.1.1 Definitions
Assignment of definite names to plants is called nomenclature. In the present botanical world, the nomenclature involves the principles governed by rules formulated and adopted by International Botanical Congresses. The rules developed by IBC are listed formally in a code called International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Voss et al., 1983), abbreviated as ICBN. The major goal of ICBN is to provide one correct name for each taxon. Taxa (singular, taxon) are the taxonomic groups of any rank. The ascending hierarachy of taxa include species, genus, family, order, class and division.
5.1.2 Who is a Nomenclaturist?
A nomenclaturist is a taxonomist who assigns names to new taxa, determines the right names for old taxa according to the rules of International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, and finalizes the right name for a specimen according to an established system of classification.

Plant collection and field preparation of specimens are the fundamental aspects of study, training and research in plant systematics. Herbarium specimens are the permanent records of plant species of a particular place at a given time. Therefore, the plants should be carefully collected, selected, and the herbarium specimens should be properly prepared and preserved.
6.1 Which Type of Specimens Should Be Collected?
The points to be kept in mind during a plant collection are:
1. Collect entire, vigorously growing typical specimens.
2. Select such individuals that represent almost all phases of the natural population.
3. Avoid collecting insect-damaged specimens.
4. Collect underground parts (e.g. roots, bulbs, rhizomes, tubers, etc.) of herbaceous perennials.
5. Collect those specimens of flowering plants that contain flowers, fruits, and seeds, because keys are prepared mainly on the basis of these characters.
6. Specimens larger than the size of a single sheet, should be divided an pressed on a series of sheets.
7. Collect plants with the leaves intact as different kinds of foliage prove helpful in identification.
8. Collect the bark and wood samples of the woody plants.
9. Avoid collecting rare or uncommon plants. Never collect the only plant of a species at a locality.

7.1 What is Chemotaxonomy?
The approach of taxonomy in which chemical features of plants are used in developing classifications or in solving taxonomic problems is called chemotaxonomy, chemosystematics, chemical taxonomy, chemical plant taxonomy or plant chemotaxonomy. Some of the basic chemical features or evidentiary characters include alkaloids, flavonoids, carotenoids, polysaccharides, terpenoids, fatty acids, amino acids, aromatic compounds, etc.
The chemical evidences are useful in establishing relationships among taxa is exemplified (Cronquist, 1980) by the (i) Presence of aromatic plants in Juglandales, (ii) Production of betalains and not anthocyanins by the members of caryophyllales, (iii) Presence of highly aromatic compounds in the members of Lamiaceae, (iv) Presence of alkaloids in Solanaceae, and (v) Presence of tanniferous plants in Sapindaceae.
7.2 Purpose of Chemotaxonomy
Chemotaxonomy has been used at all levels of the hierarchy of classification starting from the rank of ‘variety’ up to the rank of ‘division’ in plants. Moreover, chemical evidences have been used in all the groups of the plant kingdom starting from simple organisms, such as fungi and bacteria, up to the most highly advanced and specialized groups of angiosperms. These evidences are used in the classification of plants with two main purposes, (i) To develop such taxonomic characters which may improve the existing systems of plant classification and (ii) To develop the present day knowledge of phylogeny or evolutionary relationships of plants.

In flowering plants, each anther has four numbers of pollen sacs. Two anther lobes contain 4 pollen sacs in which pollen grains are produced. Pollen grains develop from the diploid microspore mother cells in pollen sacs of anthers. Thus, palynology alynology is the science of pollen and spore morphology and its applications. It is derived from the Greek word ‘palynein’ meaning ‘to scatter’. Morphological and comparative studies in palynology may solve intricate taxonomic problems. Pollen characters are useful in solving several complicated problems of interrelationships between various taxa and assessment of their status in the classification (Zhigila et al., 2018). Pollen grains are in the binucleate stage at the time of pollination.
Wodehouse (1935) and Erdtman (1943, 1952, 1954, 1963 & 1969) made the most remarkable contribution in the field of pollen morphology. The significance of pollen attributes in taxonomy has been realized during the last three decade Erdtman (1952); Wagenitz (1976); Stix (1960), and Nair (1974). Dr. Parmeshwaran Krishnan Kutty Nair, fondly referred to as P. K. K. Nair (Fig. 8.1) and considered as the father of Indian palynology. Palynological renaissance, which started in 1952 with the contributions of Erdtman (1952) and Faegri and Iversen (1950), grew with the scientific activities of Nair and took a concrete shape in 1964 when he conveyed a symposium at NBRI, Lucknow.

The application or utility of serology in solving taxonomic problems is called serotaxonomy or systematic serology. The study of antigen-antibody reactions is called serology. It had its origin towards the end of 20th century with the discovery of serological reactions and development of the discipline of immunology. The substance capable of stimulating the formation of an antibody is called antigen. A highly specific protein molecule produced by plasma cells in the immune system is called antibody. The antibodies combine chemically with specific kinds of antigens. Proteins are the useful carriers of
taxonomic information and are most widely used antigens in serotaxonomy.
Serology is Useful in The Following Ways
1. It expresses similarities and dissimilarities amongst different taxa, and these data are helpful in taxonomy. It determines the degree of similarity between species, genera, families, etc. by comparing the reactions of antigens from various plant taxa with antibodies raised against the antigen of a given taxon.
2. It helps in comparing non-morphological characteristics, the knowledge of which is useful in taxonomy.
3. Single proteins from different plant taxa are also compared by serology techniques.

A botanical and horticultural library is a library specializing in the preservation and collection of literature and materials about plants. Botanical libraries are like special libraries are specialized information resources tailored to the unique needs of a particular organization, profession, or subject area. A botanical library is a specialized resource center dedicated to the study of plants and plant science. It typically houses a vast collection of books, journals, and other materials related to botany, horticulture, plant biology, and related fields. The mission of many botanical and horticultural libraries is to make accessible and available to those who use it the information on this topic. Botanical and horticultural libraries can be found in arboretums, botanical gardens, research institutions, horticultural societies, conservatories, governmental offices, colleges, and universities as part of a larger university library.
The collections within these types of libraries cover such topics as flowers, grasses, trees, fungi, aquatic plants, weeds, algae, pests, and fertilizers. The typical collection is composed of books, periodicals, and photo collections. The types of materials depend on the types of patrons. A public botanical
garden library may contain books for children, nursery catalogs, seed catalogs, popular how-to publications, movies, and various other media resources. At an academic library, there may be such archived materials, such as historical letters, autographs of famous botanists, plant lists, field notes, and reports of botanic expeditions. These libraries might include:

Biodiversity in flora and fauna is the wealth of any nation. Billions of genes with considerable value are habitated in the bioreserves designated. Genetic resources are the backbone of crop improvement in horticulture. Term ‘genetic resources’ was coined by Sir Otto Frankelin 1967 to highlight germplasm as natural resource for improvement of crop plants. The Consortiumof International Agricultural Research Centers (CGIAR) established in 1971 by United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is a consultative group to support a network of 16 international agricultural research centres. It controls world’s largest collection of genetic resources of more than 6 lakhs of accessions of over 3,000 crops, forage and pasture species (both cultivated & wild). International Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR, 1974 now Biodiversity International)
situated at Rome, Italy had become the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) in October, 1991 for collection, evaluation & conservation of germplasm for future use. IPGRI began independent operation as one of the Centres of CGIAR in 1994. Today, Biodiversity International is the only global research-for-development organization that investigates the conservation and use of agricultural and forest bio-diversity. It is in the forefront of assisting member countries in identifying genetic resources for nutritional and food security without hampering the fragile ecosystem.
Biodiversity of given region is assessed in terms of species richness. It boosts ecosystem productivity where each species, no matter how small, all have an important role to play. Plant Generic Resource (PGR) is fundamental to crop improvement programme and the key to establish future food and nutritional security. The 1st plant genetic resources centre of the world was situated at Leningrad, Russia. Later in McNeely et al. (1990) categorized India as one of the 12 mega biodiversity countries in the world and paved the way for its placement on the world’s conservation map. Myers (2000) identified global bio-diversity hotspots and North East parts of India are the 2nd largest and next only to Mediterranean basin among the 25 identified globally.

12.1 What are Botanical Gardens?
Botanical gardens are the institutions that maintain the living plant collections of different varieties of plants, including the ornamental and cultivated ones, wild, medicinal, of economic importance, of various geographical regions, of special interest, etc. They are of value not only to the botanists, horticulturists and foresters but also to the millions of tourists
A big botanical garden contains plant species from several corners of the globe. It also includes green houses, a library, a herbarium, research laboratories, and several miscellaneous resources including photographs, paintings, illustrations, reprints, note books, and specimens of several types. It is, therefore, not merely a garden but a botanical institution.
Modern botanical gardens serve as centres for documentation, research, reference, data storage, education, conservation, and several other biological facilities to mankind.At present, there are over 600 botanical gardens in the world.

The Red Data Book is a public document that is created for recording endangered and rare species of plants, animals, fungi as well as some local subspecies that are present in a particular region. It helps us in providing complete information for research, studies and also for monitoring the programs on rare and endangered species and their habitats. Many nations of the world have prepared Red Data Books for their biological resources. Some Red Data Books include both plants and animals whereas, generally the plants are dealt separately from animals. This book is mainly created to identify and protect those species which are on the verge of extinction (“Extinction is the process of evolution that leads to the disappearance of a population or species”).
Whereas red lists of threatened plants are being highly developed for wild plants and even replaced by green lists (Imboden, 1989) and blue lists (Gigon et al., 2000), ornamental plants still lack similar lists.
13.1 Brief History
The name of this book has its origins in Russia, it was originally known as the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation or the RDBRF. The book was based on research conducted between 1961 and 1964 by biologists in Russia. Hence, it is also called the Russian Red Data Book.

14.1 Herbarium and Its Limitations
A collection of dried and pressed plants arranged according to a classification system and available for study or reference is known as herbarium (plural, herbaria), a name first applied by Linnaeus.
Plant specimens are usually mounted on a sheet of high quality paper. Properly dried, pressed and identified plant specimens are placed in thin paper folders (species covers) which are kept together in thicker paper folders (genus covers), and finally they are incorporated into the herbarium cupboards in their proper position. Some fleshy members (e.g. Cactaceae) are preserved in liquid preservatives instead of being pressed and dried. Bulky plant parts (e.g. dry fruits, cones of several gymnosperms, etc.) are dried without pressing and are stored in special bags.
A herbarium may contain a few hundred locally collected plant specimens kept in a small place, or it may contain millions of them collected from different parts of the world and housed in a very big building. Herbaria in different countries remain associated with colleges, universities, scientific societies, research institutes, botanical gardens or flora of a district, state, country, continent or several continents. There are also private herbaria.

A floral formula is a numerical representation of various parts of the flower. Such notations use numbers, letters and various symbols to convey significant information in a compact form. They may represent the floral form of a particular species, or may be generalized to characterize higher taxa, usually giving ranges of numbers of organs. It also depicts the symmetry, interrelationship of various floral parts, unisexuality as well as bisexuality in the flower.
Floral formulae were developed at the beginning of the 19th century (Prenner et al., 2010). The first authors using them were Cassel (1820) who first devised lists of integers to denote numbers of parts in named whorls; and Martius (1828). Grisebach (1854) used 4-integer series to represent the 4 whorls of floral parts in his textbook to describe characteristics of floral families, stating numbers of different organs separated by commas and highlighting fusion. Sachs (1873) used them together with floral diagrams, he noted their advantage of being composed of “ordinary typeface”.

Collection and conservation of genetic resources in horticultural crops is very much essential in regions where local seed sources are still used in genetic enhancement and cultivar production. Domesticated crops grow well adapted to both tropical and temperate regions. In particular, if the crop is domesticated over centuries to be grown in different latitudes, the genetic diversity estimates are essential for a breeder to develop location specific cultivars. Genetic ulnerability, erosion and extinction of some wild progenitors and species has been altered, warranting the need for ex situ conservation measures. The material is conserved in various forms, ranging from botanical gardens, clonal and seed populations, vegetative methods, in vitro active repositories, pollen cryobanks and DNA banks. The objective, in genetic resource context, is to conserve for prolonged duration with minimal loss of viability and genetic diversity. Most ex situ conservation methods are technology dependent. Seed and pollen banks are dependent in refrigeration technology and cryogenic technology.
The conservation of plant genetic resources in ornamental species is generally driven by demand, focusing on preserving a wide range of genetic diversity. This diversity can include individual genes and coadapted gene complexes at the micro level, as well as entire genotypes, elite clones, and plant populationsat the macro level. The distribution of genetic diversity (GD) in plant species  is predominantly dependent on the reproductive mechanisms they adopt and the mode of inheritance of the characters targeted for collection. The main reasons for collection and conservation genetic resources of an ornamental species gene pool in a given ecosystem are:

Taxonomy, also known as systematics, is the study of classifying organisms into logically related groups. Historically, taxonomy was performed by examining physical characteristics of organisms and classifying species based on the most commonly held traits. Unfortunately, this method of classifying plants and animals assumes that because they share physical characteristics, they must have shared ancestors. Markers are used over the years for classification of plants. Markers are any trait(s) of an organism that can be identified with confidence and relative ease, and can be followed in a mapping population. They can be defined as heritable entities associated with the economically important trait under the control of polygenes. Molecular markers are any kind of molecule indicating existence of a chemical or a physical process. Molecular markers include biochemical constituents (e.g. secondary metabolites in plants) and macromolecules (e.g. proteins and deoxyribo-nucleic acid). These macromolecules show easily detectable differences among different strains of a species or among different species.
The prerequisite for the improvement of any plant species are germplasm collection and its characterization to find out the diversity among the accessions. Characterization can be done by several ways which include morphological, enzymatic and genetical methods. The best way to assess the diversity is based on DNA markers which allow differentiation among genotypes without any environmental influences. These markers have a great potential to identify genetic diversity within and among accessions which help in successful implementation of pre-breeding approaches. Molecular
markers are considered the best tools for determining genetic relationships diversity as they are unlimited in number, show high polymorphism, provides more reliable information, detect more variation than morphological and biochemical markers; and are stage independent, not affected by environment and simply inherited. Molecular markers are ‘tags’ that can be used to identify specific genes and locate them in relation to other genes. They help in ensuing a desired beneficial trait to be maintained or an undesirable trait to be eliminated.

The science that includes classification, nomenclature and identification of plants is called plant taxonomy. Taxa (Sing. Taxon):A general term for taxonomic classification, irrespective of rank.
18.1 Plant Types (habit and habitat)
1. Annual: A plant that completes its entire life cycle, from seed to reproduction to death, in one single year.
2. Biennial: A plant that completes its entire life cycle in two years.
3. Perennial: A plant that grows and reproduces for many years.
4. Monocarpic: plants that flower and set seeds once during its lifetime. They flower only after attaining maturity. They flower gregariously in a single season e.g. Bamboo and Kurinjis.
5. Polycarpic: Plants that flower and set seeds many times during its lifetime.
6. Aquatic: Organisms growing in water.
7. Shrub: A much branched, small, woody perennial plant with several branches from ground level upwards.
8. Tree: A tall, woody, perennial plant with a single trunk which usually bears branches.

Agriculture including forestry, range management and sustenance of plant biodiversity have been the core of Indian civilization that dates back to several millenniums. The enormous plant diversity arising due to the varie soil, environment and altitude variations that India enjoys has resulted in the evolution of various crop species and varieties suiting to different domestic and commercial needs. The Gene Fund created under the law is designed to encourage, protect, promote, and utilize the plant biodiversity for plant
breeding activity in perpetuity. The Gene Fund in turn gets nourished by the flow of annual fee arising out of the sale of seed of the registered varieties. The keepers (services of the men and women; individuals and communities) of plant variation in the agrobiodiversity hotspots are to be beneficiaries of the gene fund. National Gene Fund shall be used for supporting and rewarding farmers and farming communities, who are engaged in conservation and improvement of genetic resources of economic plants and their wild relatives, particularly from the areas identified as hotspots of agrobiodiversity.
An understanding of intellectual property rights for plant breeders has become increasingly important over the last few decades. It is also a confusing topic to many in the industry. Confusion is understandable when we are presented with various types of protection, many acronyms, terms used interchangeably and incorrectly, regulations that vary internationally and a lack of understanding or consistent interpretations of laws that govern these rights.

A family of over 250 genera and 2,500 species, Acanthaceae are distributed mainly in tropics, but also in Mediterranean region, Australia and USA. Central America, Brazil, Africa and Indo-Malaysia are the 4 chief centres of
distribution. About 70 genera and over 340 species have been reported from India. Some of the largely represented genera along with the approximate number of their worldover reported species are Justicia (300), Strobilanthes
(250), Barleria (230), Thunbergia (200), Aphelandra (200), Decliptera (150), Blepharis (100), Staurogyne (80), Mendoncia (60), Crossandra (60) and Acanthus (50).
Selected Indian Genera
Acanthus, Adhatoda, Barleria, Eranthemum, Justicia, Peristrophe, Ruellia, Thunbergia.
Economic Importance
1. Ornamental plants include Aphelandra aurantiaca, Barleria cristata, B. gibsoni, Beloperone guttata (shrimp plant), Crossandra infundibuliformis, Eranthemum bicolor, E. nervosum, Fittonia gigantea, Jacobinia carnea, Justicia gendarussa, Ruellia brittoniana, Thunbergia coccinia, T. erecta, T. fragrans and T. grandiflora.

A family of about 175 genera and 2,500 species, Amaranthaceae are mostly distributed in tropical but also in temperate regions. About 18 genera and over 50 species have been reported from India. Some of the larger genera with the number of their approximately reported species and common names are Alternanthera (200, alligator weed), Gomphrena (100, globe amaranth), Iresine (80, gizzard plant), Amaranths (60, pigweed) and Celosia (60, cock’s comb).
Gomphrenas are 30-40 cm tall, bushy with erect stems, hairy, light green with oblong-ovate leaves tapering towards the base. Round button like or spherical flower head is a cylindrical spike 1-2 cm long and 1 cm in diameter and may be terminal and/or axillary, and are born on long, thin stems above the foliage. Each flower head has tiny, conspicuous, papery, colourful bracts which enclose the inconspicuous true flowers. Bracts ovate, three mm long, apex acuminate, bracteoles 4.5-5.5 mm long. Ovary is sub-globose with two stigmas. Seed is brown, lustrous, 1.5 mm long (Wagner et al., 1999). It has both C3 and C4 pathway.
Selected Indian Genera
Achyranthes, Alternanthera, Amaranths, Celosia, Digera, Gomphrena and Pupalia.

A family of about 73 genera and over 1,600 species (Hickey and King, 1988),Amaryllidaceae are usually distributed in tropical and sub-tropical regions. About 9 genera and over 60 species have been reported from India. Some of the larger genera along with the number of their world over reported species are Crinum (110), Hippeastrum (75), Narcissus (60), Hymenocallis (50), Haemanthus (50), Cyrtanthus (47), Zephyranthes (40), Galanthus (20), Polianthes (15), and Pancratium (15).
Hippeastrum (popular name Amaryllis) is one of the most beautiful bulbous ornamental plants grown in the world. It is very suitable for planting in pots, greenhouses, window gardens, flowering beds, rockeries, popular as cut flower, and useful in floral arrangements. Hippeastrum and Amaryllis are synonyms for ‘Trumpet lily’ or ‘Night Star lily’ in Indian gardens. In USA, A. belladonna is known as Callicore rosea sometimes as Hippeastrum equestre, and in South Africa as ‘March lily’, being a variable species. Plants of the genus A. belladonna are known as ‘Belladonna lily’, ‘Naked Lady’ or ‘Amarillo’. Hippeastrum hybridum is popularly known as ‘Royal Dutch’ amaryllis or ‘Dutch’ amaryllis hybrids. Hippeastrum takes its name from the Hippeus meaning ‘a knight rider’ or horse and ‘astron’ meaning a star, due to some fancied resemblance in H. equestre, perhaps of the equitant leaves and the star shaped corolla opening.

A family of about 400 genera and 4,555 species of mostly tropical and subtropical distribution, but a few species distributed also in temperature regions. About 30 genera and over 60 species of Apocynaceae have been reported from India. Some of the larger genera along with their approximately reported species in bracket are Rauvolfia (100), Tabernaemontana (100), Parsonsia (100), Aspidosperma (80), Prestonia (65), Strophanthus (60), Apocynum (7), Plumeria (6) and Catharanthus (5). Some plants are of medicinal value and some are highly ornamental.
Periwinkle (syn. Vinca) is grown as an ornamental bedding plant in gardens and parks and is known for its colourful flowers and ever-blooming nature. In India, it is commonly known as sada bahar, sada phuli, and barmasi. It is one of the top ten best selling plant in USA. Its importance has increased owing to medicinal properties and as a model species for study of plant’s secondary metabolism. The plant contains more than 70 different alkaloids in leaves and roots which contribute to anti-cancerous (vincristine and vinblastine) and antihypertensive (ajamalicine) properties, respectively.

A family of 140 genera and over 4,075 species, Araceae are distributed mostly in tropical and some also in temperate regions of the world. About 25 genera and over 140 species have been reported from India, chiefly from western and southern parts. Some larger genera along with the number of their worldover reported species are Anthurium (500), Philodendron (275), Arisaema (150), Amorphophallus (100), Rhaphidophora (100), Pothos (75), Alocasia (70), Monstera (50), Arum (15), Colocasia (8), Acorus (2) and Pistia (1). Colocasia (Colocasia antiquorum) and ‘money plant’ (Pothos aureus) are two famous plants of Araceae.
Anthurium is a beautiful group of tropical aroids. It is cultivated globally for its attractive flowers and foliage. The flowering stalks have a long vase life and add an ethnic beauty to any floral decoration. Anthurium also called as ‘Flamingo flower’ or ‘Boy flower’, both referring to the structure of the spathe, and spadix. ‘Anthra’ is a worldwide knowledge center for the cultivation of anthurium, based on Holland and Germany. ‘Anthura’ performs activities in the field of research and development breeding, tissue culture technology, training and publishing cultivation know- how. ‘Anthura’ collaborates with research stations and test locations in Thailand, China, USA, Japan and India.

Asteraceae or Compositae is one of the largest families of flowering plants, represented by about 1,707 genera and over 23,600 species which are worldwide in distribution. Radford (1986) has mentioned the number of genera to be ‘One thousand to 2000’. About 140 of its genera and over 700 species have been reported from India. Some of the largely represented genera include Senecio (2,000+), Eupatorium (1,200), Vernonia (1,000), Hieracium (1,000), Centaurea (600), Aster (500), Helichrysum (500), Cousinia (400), Artemisia (400), Baccharis (400), Mikania (250), Bidens (230), Crepis (200), Inula (200), Erigron (200), Chrysanthemum (160), Cirsium (150), Ligularia (150), Helianthus (110), Lactuca (100), Hypochoeris (100) and Carduus (100).
In the Chrysanthemum genus, the modern autumn flowering perennial Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat is most important. The name of C. morifolium Ramat has been changed to Dendranthema grandiflora Tzvelev (Anderson, 1987; Heywood and Humphries, 1977 and Kitamura, 1978). Chrysanthemum (D.x grandiflora) is an internationally recognized floriculture crop. It ranks second among commercial flowers in the international market. It is known as ‘Queen of East’ in Japan while in USA, it is considered as the ‘Queen of the fall flowers’. Flowers are in great demand in landascape, for making garland, wreath, veni and religious offerings. Pot chrysanthemums are
commonly known as ‘mums’ and large flowered cultivars are used as potted plants.

Represented by about 120 genera and over 800 species. Bignoniaceae are distributed mainly in tropical and sub-tropical, and a few in temperate regions. About 15 genera and 40 species are found in India. Some of the larger genera along with their approximate number of worldover reported species are Tabebuia (100), Arraabidaea (70), Jacaranda (50), Anemopaegma (30), Tecoma (16), Catalpa (11) and Crescentia (5).
Selected Indian Genera
Jacaranda, Kigelia, Millingtonia, Tecoma, Heterophragma, Oroxylum and Dolichandrone. Economic Importance
1. Ornamental plants of the family include handsome trees (Catalpa bignonioides, Haplophragma adenophyllum, Jacaranda mimosaefolia, (Fig. 26.1), Kigelia pinnata, Millingtonia hortensis, Spathodea campanulata and Tabebuia spectabilis), shrubs (Bignonia unguis-cati), beautiful tendril-climbers (Adenocalymna alliaceum, Bignonia venusta syn. Pyrostegia venusta), aerial rootlet climbers (Campis grandiflora and C. radicans) and herbaceous genus Incarvillea.

Cacti are eulogized as ‘Plants of 21st century’. They have gained popularity due to many exciting shapes, blooms, ease of culture and long life without least care. Cacti are categorized as fleshy stem succulent with photo-synthetically active stem. Good for indoor decoration in pot, outdoor decoration, landscaping, public garden, rock garden, etc.
The family Cactaceae includes approximately 131 genera and 1,750 species. But different authors mention the number of genera differently between 30 to 200. Members are distributed chiefly in semi-desert or drier regions of tropical and sub-tropical America, and also in Africa, Mauritius, Seychelles, India, Sri Lanka and Australia. Mainly the Cactaceae are the succulents of New World. Main species of Old World is Rhipsalis. Some of the larger genera along with their number of reported species are Mammillaria (200-300), Opuntia (250), Echinocereus (75), Rhipsalis (60), Cereus (50), Cephalcereus (48), Echinopsis (35), Epiphyllum (21) and Pereskia (20).
The classification of the family Cactaceae remains uncertain as of August 2023. Since the mid-1990s, the system produced by the International Cactaceae Systematics Group (ICSG) of the International Organization for Succulent Plant Study has been used as the basis of many published classifications. Hunt (2006) recognized Cactaceae family has 4 sub-families viz. Pereskioideae (the leaf cactus, 20 spp.), Opuntioideae (300 spp.), Cactoideae (1,000 spp.) and Maihuenioideae (2 spp.). Three tribes: Pereskieae, Opuntieae, Cereae. Tribe Cereae has 8 sub-tribes: Cereanae, Hylocereanae, Echinocereanae, Echiocactanae, Cactanae, Coryphanthanae, Epiphyelanae, Rhipsolidanae. The cacti of sub-tribe ‘Echinocereanae’ are commonly known as ‘Hedgehogs’.

It is represented by about 100 genera and over 2,200 species which are either annual or perennial, Caryophyllaceae are cosmopolitan in distribution, and mainly found in the north temperate or warm temperate regions of the world. Over 20 genera and about 100 species have so far been reported from India. Some of the larger genera, along with their common names and number of species in parenthesis include Silene (catchfly, 500), Dianthus (carnation, 300), Arenaria (sandwort, 250), Gypsophila (baby’s breath, 125), Stellaria (chickweed, 100), Cerastium (mouse-ear chickweed, 100), Drymaria (50), Spergula (40), Saponaria (30), etc.
Carnation, commonly named as ‘Divine flower’, ‘Clove pink’, and ‘Gilly flower’, is one of the most beautiful and commercially important flower crops of the world. It is excellent for cut flowers, bedding, pots, edging and rock gardens due to its exquisite shape, wide range of colours, light weight and good vase life. In Europe and USA, perpetual carnation is cultivated on large scale in greenhouses for production of cut flowers. In terrain parts of France and Holland, carnation flowers are used for perfume extraction and only light coloured flowers are useful for this purpose.
Description of Family
1. General habit: Mostly annual or perennial herbs, rarely suffrutescent shrubs; arctic forms are reduced and possess caespitose habit.
2. Stem: Herbaceous; rarely with a basal woody part; nodes swollen; branching usually dichotomous but sometimes monopodial.

It is a monotypic or unigeneric family represented by four genera containing about 91 species distributed mainly in north-east Australia and also in Fiji, New Caledonia, Malaysia and Mascarene islands. Only one species (Casuarina equisetifolia) occurs in India, and this is the most common species of the world.
Selected Genera
Casuarina, Gymnostoma, Allocasuarina, Ceuthostoma.
Economic Importance
Casuarina is important mainly as timber tree. The wood of C. equisetifolia, C. cunningbamia and C. stricta is used for furniture, for fuel and also for basket making. The bark of C. suberosa and C. stricta is utilized for tanning. C. equisetifolia is usually grown as an ornamental and also in order to reclaim sandy dunes in India and several countries.

Family Combretaceae contains about 20 genera and 600 species distributed mainly in the tropical and sub-tropical countries of the world (Rahate et al., 2019). Eight genera and about 45 species of this family have been reported from India, chiefly from Assam and West Bengal. Combretum and Terminalia are two largest genera of the family. Lumnitzera littoria is found as a mangrove plant in Sundanban and other tidal forests of India.
Terminalia bellirica is tall tree and leaves clustered near ends of branches. Flowers are small, pale green, arise in simple spikes. Fruit is ovoid, 3 cm long, brownish & densely covered with hairs and contains 5-17 per cent tannins. Unripe fruit is used as astringent but ripe fruit is purgative. Fruit powder is used as tonic & laxative and useful in piles, leprosy, dropsy and fever. Fruit of T. chebula is astringent and laxative. Roasted fruits are used to treat cough, chronic ulcer, wounds & scalds, used in dyeing and tanning purposes, fruit decoction is used in bleeding and ulceration of gums
Description of Family
1. General habit: A family of exclusively arborescent taxa, consisting of tall trees or woody twiners of lianas, such as Combretum and Quisqualis.
2. Stem: Solid with large mucilaginous sacs and abundant tannin.
3. Leaves: Simple, alternate or sometimes opposite (Quisqualis); exstipulate; margin entire.

This cosmopolitan family of about 375 genera and over 4,060 species, occur chiefly in north temperate regions, especially in the Mediterranean region. About 50 genera and over 140 species have so far been reported from India. Some of the larger genera, along with their reported number of species from the world in parenthesis, include Draba (300), Cardamine (160), Lepidium (150), Alyssum (150), Arabis (120), Erysimum (100), Sisymbrium (90), Heliophila (75), Rorippa (70), Iberis (30) and Raphanus (8). Majority of Crucifers produce an abundance of vitamin C. Characteristic pungent odour of its members is because of sulphur compounds.
Selected Indian Genera and Species
• Vegetables: Several common vegetables of daily use belong to this family. Some of them are radish (Raphanus sativus), cauliflower (B. oleracea var. botrytis), Brussel’s sprout (B. oleracea var. gemmifera), sengri (B. sativus var. caudatus), etc.
• Oils: Fatty oil, used for cooking, pickles, bruning, massaging, etc. is obtained from the seeds of several species of this family. Mustard oil is obtained from several species of Brassica such as B. campestris var. sarson and B. campestris var. toria (Indian rape). Oil is also obtained from the seeds of B. juncea var. cuneifolia (Rai), B. alba (white mustard). The oil cake left after the extraction of oil, is a good cattle feed.

A family of over 322 genera and 8,900 species, Euphorbiaceae is closely related to Sterculiaceae of the Malvales through the various degrees of the union of stamens and the presence of the pistillode and staminode in the male and female flowers, respectively. They are distributed mainly in tropics, but also in Mediterranean region, Australia and USA. Some of the largely represented genera along with the approximate number of their world over reported species are Euphorbia (2000), Croton (700), Phyllanthus (500), Acalypha (430), Japtropha (175), Manihot (170).
Selected Indian Genera
Acalypha, Codiaeum, Euphorbia, Hevea, Jatropha, Mallotus, Manihot, Phyllanthus, Poinsettia, Putranjiva, Ricinus.
Economic Importance
1. Fruits of Emblica officinalis are rich in vitamins, medicinal and also used for tanning.
2. Garden croton (Codiaeum variegatum) with variegated leaves, poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima Fig. 32.1, Fig. 32.3) with beautiful red bracts, Acalypha sanderiana, A. tricolor and Pedilanthus tithymaloides (Jew’s slipper), Putranjiva roxburghii (Child life tree) are used as ornamental purpose; Jatropha gossypifolia is commonly grown as hedge; Manihot esculenta (tapioca) yield valuable starchy food; Manihot utillissima (bitter cassava); Manihot alpe (sweet cassava); Manihot glaziovii yields ceara rubber; Hevea brasiliensis yields para rubber; fruits of Mallotus philippinensis yields a crimson powder used for dyeing silk, etc.

Geraniaceae is a family of about 7 genera and 830 species which are
cosmopolitan in distribution and found widely in temperate and tropical regions.
Only 3 genera and about 25 species have been reported from India, mainly
from Himalayas. Some of the larger genera along with their approximately
reported species in parenthesis include Geranium (430), Pelargonium (280),
Erodium (80) and Monsonia (25). Well-known ‘geranium oil’ is distilled from
Pelargonium odoratissinum.
Pelargonium (syn. Geraniums, Stork bills) is an extremely popular garden
plant and has considerable economic importance in the market of ornamental
plants. Its genotypes and hybrids are grown in temperate regions. Its value as a
potential essential oil yielding crop is also mentioned. Geranium oil is widely
used in perfumery, cosmetics, pharmaceutical, and food industries. Oil has
anti-microbial, and pesticidal activities. The genus Pelargonium comprises
more than 280 species in 13 sections of which 33 have been originated in
southern parts of South Africa (Van der Walt and Vorster, 1988). It has been
reported that nearly 80 per cent diversity of Pelargoniums is centered in Cape
Province if African continent (South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique).
Pelargoniums are popular seed and vegetatively propagated bedding and
pot plants with numerous phenotypes (Fish type, Ivy leaved, Regal, Angels,
Fancy leaves, Scented, Oak leaf) and cultivars (Double/ Bar/ Centre/ Ring/
Vein/ Picotee pattern/ Tulip/ Carnation/ Phlox/ Birds egg flowered) available
on the world market. True geranium is a bushy, aromatic plant. The stem is
cylindrical, woody at the base, pubescent, green when young and turning
brown with age. The leaves are highly aromatic in nature. Flowers are regular
and devoid of spur like appendages.

A family of about 66 genera and over 2,244 species, Iridaceae are distributed in both tropical and temperate regions with the chief centres of distribution in tropical America and South Africa. Chief areas of distribution in India are Kashmir, and Kumanon hills. Common species cultivated in Indian gardens include Belamcanda chinensis, Crocus sativus, C. biflorus, C. speciosa, Gladiolus primulinus, G. colvillei, Freesia refracta, Iris kumaonensis, I. germanica and I. foetidissima. Iridaceae are cultivated throughout the world for their beautiful flowers.
Gladiolus ‘the queen of bulbous flowers’ is one of the most important bulbous ornamentals grown commercially in all parts of the world for its attractive flowers. It is very much liked for its majestic spikes containing attractive,
elegant and delicate florets which open in sequence over a long duration and hence, has good keeping quality of cut spikes. These are extensively employed as cut flower in herbaceous borders, individual beds in the gardens, for exhibition, as pot plants for various kinds of interior decoration and for making bouquets. North American Gladiolus Council, Boston established in 1910 (www.gladworld.org), and New England Gladiolus Society (www.britglad. com), came into existence during post war era (1945-55), are actively involved in popularization and improvement of gladiolus in tune with flourishing cut flower trade in western countries.

A family of about 236 genera and 7,200 species, Labiatae are cosmopolitan in their distribution and their chief centre is the Mediterranean region. About 65 genera and over 400 species have been reported from India, mainly distributed in North Western parts of India and southern parts of India. Some largely represented genera along with the approximate number of their worldover reported species and common names of some of them are Salvia (500-700, sage), Hyptis (400), Thymus (300-400, thyme), Teucrium (300, germander), Stachys (300), Scutellaria (200, skullcap), Coleus (200, Jacob’s coat), Ocimum (150, basil), Nepeta (150, catnip), Lavendula (28, lavender), Mentha (25, mint) and Rosmarinus (3, rosemary).
Salvia is a tender herbaceous annual or perennial plant and cultivated as bedding plant in many countries. Owing to its adaptability, self sowing ability and handsome appearance, it has been introduced and commanded all over the world. Salvia species have long history of utilization as medicinal herbs. The therapeutic value of this crop is widely recognized in traditional Chinese medicine for various ailments. Some species are strongly aromatic having
horticultural, commercial and medicinal values.

A family of about 236 genera and 7,200 species, Labiatae are cosmopolitan in their distribution and their chief centre is the Mediterranean region. About 65 genera and over 400 species have been reported from India, mainly distributed in North Western parts of India and southern parts of India. Some largely represented genera along with the approximate number of their worldover reported species and common names of some of them are Salvia (500-700, sage), Hyptis (400), Thymus (300-400, thyme), Teucrium (300, germander), Stachys (300), Scutellaria (200, skullcap), Coleus (200, Jacob’s coat), Ocimum (150, basil), Nepeta (150, catnip), Lavendula (28, lavender), Mentha (25, mint) and Rosmarinus (3, rosemary).
Salvia is a tender herbaceous annual or perennial plant and cultivated as bedding plant in many countries. Owing to its adaptability, self sowing ability and handsome appearance, it has been introduced and commanded all over the world. Salvia species have long history of utilization as medicinal herbs. The therapeutic value of this crop is widely recognized in traditional Chinese medicine for various ailments. Some species are strongly aromatic having
horticultural, commercial and medicinal values.

A family of about 15 genera and 705 species showing cosmopolitan distribution. About 35 genera and over 195 species have been reported from India. Some of the largely represented genera along with the number of their world over reported species are Smilax (350), Aloe (300), Asparagus (300), Dracaena (150). Ornithogalum (150), Haworthia (150), Tulipa (100), Fritillaria (85), Lilium (80), Colchicum (65), Sansevieria (60), Yucca (40), Asphodelus (12) and Ruscus (7).
Lilium is a bulbous ornamental plant commonly known as lily. The flowers are associated with religious feasts and symbolism. In the language of flowers, the lily is the symbol of purity, and innocence. It is one of the sixth major genera of flower bulbs produced worldwide. Lilium ranks 4th among cut flower trade in international market. Certain species of Lilium are edible, and valued for medicinal properties also.
Tulip is one of the most important bulbous geophytes in the world and popular due to its beauty and economic value. It is the top rated flower bulb in the international cut flower market. Modern tulip cultivars, predominantly T. gesneriana, are grown for bulb production, cut flowers, flowering potted plants, and landscaping. The current commercial assortment still consists mainly of cultivars from T. gesneriana. The second group of cultivars, the Darwin hybrids consists has been obtained from interspecific crosses between cultivars T. gesneriana and genotypes of T. fosteriana. Tulipa suaveolens, a kind of tulip discovered wild in southern Europe, has played an important role in the evolution of the garden tulip (Bailey, 1963).

Named after a French botanist Pierre Magnol, Magnoliaceae is a family of about 7 genera and 300 species, mainly distributed in the warm temperature regions of the Northern Hemisphere. The species are common in eastern Asia and eastern North America, and found also in Brazil, West Indies, and Malaysia.
Description of family
1) General habit: Deciduous or evergreen, often aromatic shrubs or trees; Liriodendron tulipifera reaches 20 to 65 m in height; Michelia and Magnolia are medium sized trees or shrubs; Schizandra is a climber.
2) Leaves: Alternate, large, simple, entire, petiolate, pinnately-veined; stipulate, stipules large, protect young buds and leave a circular scar on falling; stipules absent in Wintereae; oil glands present.
3) Inflorescence: Flowers usually solitary, either axillary or terminal; flowers crowded near the tips of the branches in Illicium.
4) Flowers: Large, showy, bracteate (Magnolia, Michelia) or ebracteate, pedicellate, bisexual but rarely unisexual flowers while other have bisexual flowers.