eChapters

Introduction

Micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs) dominate the Indonesian economy. These enterprises account for around 99 percent of all businesses in Indonesia and employ more than 95 percent of the total workforce across the country. They should be the primary engines of economic growth, although they generate only approximately 56 percent of the overall gross domestic product (GDP) of Indonesia. Around 80 percent of MSMEs are in the trading sector involved in buying and selling existing products/services). Within the MSME group, micro and small enterprises (MSEs), including those in the manufacturing industry, called micro and small industries (MSIs), i.e. business units with up to a maximum of 500 million Indonesian rupiah (IDR), are the ones that receive the most attention from the Indonesian government because they account for almost 99 percent of total MSMEs. So, compared to medium and large industries (MLIs), MSIs are the largest job creators in the country. These enterprises also have high resilience in various previous crises, including the COVID-19 pandemic. Their high resilience has played a role as a cushion for the economy because of their ability to survive periods of pressure and grow back faster and higher after pressure.

Introduction

The past few years have been characterized by changes in every walk of life and libraries are no exceptions. Certainly there have been profound changes in the ways we approach and manage libraries and provide basic library services such as bibliographic control, document delivery, presentation, and physical facilities for reading.  The evolution of traditional interlibrary loan services into a full range of document delivery services, new avenues for document acquisions and delivery from traditional methods to “high tech” with the most efficient pathway defined by the user within desired cost and time parameters have set new standard for library resources and services management.

Introduction
Dill seed/sowa belong to the genus Anethum and it is derivative of Greek word ‘aneeson or aneeton’, meaning thereby strong smell. The botanical name of dill seed is Anethum graveolens L. It is the only species falling in the genus Anethum, and known as East Indian dill or Sowa (Anethum graveolens var. sowa Roxb. ex, Flem.) in India. It is cultivated as a foliage crop in rabi season stretched in the Indian subcontinent.
Origin
It seems to be originated in South-east Europe or South-west Asia and also native to Central Asia, Mediterranean and southern USSR. It belongs to India, as it is found growing in the states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, A.P., M.P. and Rajasthan.
Uses
• Used as in abdominal discomfort, colic and promoting digestion.
• Cures ‘vata’, ‘kapha’, ulcers, eye diseases and uterine pains.
• Paste of dill seed with milk is used for external use in rheumatic and swellings of joints.
• Attributed to tonic, rejuvenating and intellect promoting properties.
• Used as condiment.
• Seeds are used as carminative, aromatic, galactogogue, mildly diuretic, stomachic and stimulant.

English name : Dill
Botanical name : Anethum graveolens L.
Family : Apiaceae
Chromosome number : 2n = 22
Centre of origin : Mediterranean region
The genus Anethum includes two cultivated species: the European dill (A. graveolens L.) and the Indian dill (A. sowa Roxb.). The seed compositions of these two dill types are as follows:
Indian dill composition
• Moisture: 4.5-7.5%
• Volatile oil: 1.5-4.0%
• Mineral matter: 5.89-11.54%
• Acid-insoluble ash: 0.55-2.71%
• Extraneous matter: 3.16-12.93%

Q. 1 Froude number is the ratio between
(A) Inertia force to viscous forces (B) Inertia force to gravity force
(C) Inertia force to shear force      (D) Gravity force to inertia force

Apparel quality is a multidimensional concept influencing customer satisfaction, brand loyalty and business sustainability. From the manufacturer’s perspective, it includes measurable technical characteristics such as durability, seam strength, colourfastness and accuracy of fit. Consumers also evaluate less tangible qualities, including comfort, appearance, emotional satisfaction and brand perception. Understanding these dimensions enables designers, manufacturers, retailers and marketers to align product development with market expectations. They provide a framework for establishing benchmarks, maintaining product consistency and reducing defects throughout the supply chain. As fashion consumers become increasingly discerning, effective management of every quality dimension is essential for enhancing value and remaining competitive in domestic and international markets.

6.1 Introduction

Farm ponds used in farmers’ fields are generally square shaped or rectangular shaped pyramidal structures. It has a regular side slope, depth, and top and bottom dimensions. It may be excavated/dugout pond or embankment pond. In excavated pond, the pond is constructed below the ground level. Water is collected in the pond by gravity from the adjacent catchment. In embankment type, the pond is partly above the ground and partly below. This type of pond has higher storage capacity than the dugout type pond. This type of pond has a berm and dyke/embankment around the pond. The embankment has some side slope. The pond has bottom dimensions, dimensions at the ground level as well as some dimensions at the top above the embankment. In this chapter, various dimensions of pond like depth, side slope of the pond, as well as the various dimensions at bottom, ground and top level will be discussed.

3.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Indigenous communities depending mainly on hunting, collection of food from the forests and managing natural resources to meet their requirements, have lived intimately with nature. Shifting cultivation has helped these communities to earn their livelihood for centuries to become to be food secure. Besides being a source of subsistence, the shifting cultivation has also been a repository of agro-biodiversity. Not considering this, the authorities have tried to impose the practice of intensive agriculture on indigenous people for conversion to mainstream agriculture (Singh et al. 2016). The way of life of indigenous people has been grossly impacted by the stress of market oriented development, government schemes, and interventions by some NGOs. The ‘dimensions of shifting cultivation’ not only includes the area under shifting cultivation and the number of shifting cultivators in the world but, various forms, shapes, methods and other aspects of the practice on spatial and temporal basis as well (Fig. 3.1).

Concept of sustainable agriculture is of multiple dimensions. It denotes potential of technology, fragile ecosystem, and human interference of limited natural resources. An understanding of sustainable agriculture in brief indicates:

1. Increase in production with efficient use of resources

2. Control of external inputs of synthetic nature

3. Nutrient cycle within the farm must be closed.

Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) of CGIAR reveals that sustainability is a dynamic concept that allows for changing needs of a steady increasing global population. Sustainable agriculture should involve the successful management of resources for agriculture to satisfy changing human needs while maintaining or enhancing the quality of environment and conserving natural resources.

The dictionary meaning of sustainability is to keep an effort continuously the ability to last out and keep from falling. Sustainability basically refers to the capacity to remain productive while maintaining the resource base. Locker (1988) explained the term sustainable, a time dimension and the capacity of farming system to endure indefinitely. The concept of sustainability should serve as guide to agricultural practices. It must include technology and practices that both sustain and enhance productivity to meet the increasing food demands (Rutton, 1988). In short, environmental sustainability implies that it is compatible with and supportive of the criteria like;

7.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of South East Asia, Central America.

• Mexico - largest producer of diosgenin.

• In India, it is grown in North eastern states and Goa

• Dioscorea alata and Dioscorea esculenta - edible tubers.

• Dioscorea floribunda, Dioscorea villosa, Dioscorea composita - widely grown

• Major producing countries - Mexico, Guatamala, Costa Rica, India and China.

1. Botanical name : Diploknema butyracea H J Larn

2. Family : Sapotaceae

3. Common Name : Indian Butter Tree

4. Name in Indian languages : Chiura, Phuwara, Chura (Hindi, Kumaoni), Chyuri (Nepali).

12.1 Introduction

Dipnoans are commonly referred to as ‘lungfish’. Dipnoi owes its name to the presence of two internal nostrils. Dipnoans, which stand on the basic piscine platform, have many interesting features that the early fishes went through to become land vertebrates, particularly amphibians. As a result, the group’s systematic position becomes contentious. Dipnoans evolved during the middle Devonian period and thrived during the Permian and Triassic periods. They became scarce after the Triassic period and are now represented by three specialised genera. According to Young (1981), dipnoans have acquired special characteristics through paedomrphosis.

Quantitative heat production estimation is necessary to  know the net energy of feeds and fodders. In the case of ruminants approximately 8 per cent of the gross energy consumed is lost as methane, therefore it becomes necessary to know this important loss in terms of methane energy so as to assess the metabolisable energy of any particular feed. In human subjects, heat production studies are conducted to know the effect of planes of nutrition on basal metabolism as affected by different environmental conditions.

In the important laboratories of world, heat production and methane production studies were conducted by respiration chamber (open circuit and closed circuit), since in our country respiration chamber has been installed at IVRI, Izatnagar, Bareilly (U.P.) India, therefore, this technique is mentioned in brief in this chapter. Indirect calorimetry involving the use of face mask and Douglas bag is followed at present in our country at NDRI, Karnal (India) so as to study the basal metabolic rate (BMR), heat production in human subjects and animals, Krishna (1973). Some laboratories in the country are interested to study respiratory quotient at different levels of feeding in human subjects and animals. The methods of estimation of RQ (respiratory quotient) is expressed in detail in this chapter.

Introduction

Acute lung injury (ALI) is the manifestation of an inflammatory response of lung resulting from severe sepsis, bacterial or viral pneumonia, trauma, and burns in animals (Ali et al., 2020).It is distinguwashed by disruption to the alveolar capillary membranes, atelectasis of the pulmonary airspaces, and neutrophil and protein-rich fluid infiltration into the alveolar space (Li et al., 2019). Although advances in treatment, the disability and fatality rates of ALI remain high, that is around 30-40% (Ali et al., 2020). At the moment, new therapeutic alternatives are urgently required to treat ALI. As a result, this is a very active area of research to understand the molecular principles underlying pulmonary inflammation and ALI (Reiss et al., 2012). The use of animal models of inflammatory lung has allowed for the probing of pathways of inflammation responsible for injury. Specially, rodent models may serve a link between in vitro research to large animals and clinical studies by allowing for high quantities of samples under physiological circumstances at low expenses (Domscheit et al., 2020).LPS, found in the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria, consists of a polar lipid head group (lipid A) and a chain of repeating disaccharides (Gao et al., 2023). LPS induced lung injury model, closely mimic sepsis and inflammatory lung diseases, is a well-establwashed model in this field of research (Reiss et al., 2012). To mimic acute lung injury, LPS can be administered either directly through intratracheal or intranasal route (direct pulmonary insult) or indirectly through intraperitoneally and intravenous routes (indirect extra pulmonary insult) (Perl et al., 2011). This chapter focuses mostly on rodent model of acute lung injury caused by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), both direct and indirect. Additionally, it also includes the characteristics and underlying molecular mechanism of LPS induced lung injury along with applications in drug development.

Aim: Determination of percentage regulation and efficiency of a single phase transformer by direct loading method.

Percentage regulation

When the load on the transformer is increased, the voltage drop in its primary and secondary windings also increases causing variations in secondary terminal voltage. The term voltage regulation of transformer means the change in secondary terminal voltage when full load is thrown off keeping supply voltage and frequency constant. It is generally expressed as percentage of no load terminal voltage for a desired power factor.

ABSTRACT

In vitro propagation of Plumbago rosea was attempted. One year old plants were used as the source of explants. Nodal explants were inoculated on half strength MS medium supplemented with 2,4-D 1.0 mg l^-1. Induction of callus was observed three weeks after inoculation. The calli were sub-cultured on half strength MS medium supplemented with BA (0.5, 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0 mg l^-1) and IAA (0.0 and 1.0 mg l^-1). Eight treatments with six replications were tried. Benzyl adenine 2.0 mg l^-1 promoted the proliferation of shoots (23.2). Rooting of micro shoots was obtained on MS medium supplemented with IBA 1.5 mg l^-1. The plantlets were then transferred to pots containing sand/soil mixture (1:1) and kept in a mist chamber. The survival rate was found to be 90 per cent.

Background and Technology Intervention

The primary resource affected by the climate change is water. In arid and semi-arid regions of India, any shortfall in water supply due to climate change will enhance competition for water use for a wide range of economic, social and environmental applications. The population growth with the improved living conditions also increases the demand for food production and thereby increasing the demand of water in multiple folds in the river basins (UNESCO-WWAP, 2009). The major portion of water available in the Indian River basins are used for cultivating rice and thus poses major challenges to water management, especially during unfavourable climatic conditions.

Directing is concerned with telling subordinates what to do and ensuring that they do it as best as they can. It includes assigning tasks and duties, explaining procedures, issuing orders, providing on-the-job instructions, monitoring performance, and correcting deviations.

Directing must have two dimensions, namely, i) magnitude and ii) aim or direction.

The directing function includes the following:

1. Supervising
2. Guiding
3. Leading
4. Motivating, and
5. Communicating

INTRODUCTION

Nearly 60% of the population of the country is dependent on agriculture. Rainfed agriculture supports 40% of the population and 75% of the poorest of the poor in the country (Pant 2001). Therefore, maintenance of health of production base stands as a prime goal to be achieved for sustainable production, prosperity and posterity. Tree culture is highly necessitated for amelioration of climate, soil, production of firewood, fodder, timber, fibre, fruit, gum etc. Hence, agroforestry is a viable option particularly in the Indian context.

10.1 General Description

The soil, water, and biodiversity of the land make up a complex composition. Together, these three components produce goods and services that lay the groundwork for people to live sustainably and in peace with one another. Yet an estimated 3.2 billion people's security, livelihoods, and health are at stake due to land degradation. Any decrease or loss in the biological or economic productive capability of the land resource base is referred to as "land degradation." Natural processes contribute, but humans are primarily to blame for the harm. Degradation is frequently intricately connected to biodiversity loss and the effects of climate change.

Restored lands provide access to clean water, reduce erosion, preserve livelihoods and biodiversity, create forest products, and supply biomass fuel. Trees in agricultural environments can enhance soil fertility, hold onto moisture, and boost food output. Trees and forests slow climate change by storing carbon; intensive restoration efforts may lead to a reduction in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide. Restoration can assist communities in adjusting to the effects of climate change by ensuring water supplies or reducing the effects of severe storms.

Plant cultivation was only a modest activity of primarily nomadic populations in the second millennium BC, and it had little impact on the vegetation. After 0 BC/AD, sedentary civilizations created enormous settlement mounds, and on the dunes, a shifting agricultural system with fields and fallows was constructed. Park savannas, an agroforestry system with protected wild fruit trees scattered throughout the fields, were used for cultivation (Höhn and Neumann 2012). Extensive farming with protracted fallow periods was conducted during the first millennium AD. The composition of the woody vegetation changed as fallow seasons shrunk and the impact of cattle herding on the vegetation increased towards the start of the second millennium AD. The substantially lower species richness of the contemporary woody forest was eventually brought about by declining precipitation and anthropogenic pressure (Höhn and Neumann 2012).

Introduction

Disaster is defined as a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society causing widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses, which exceed the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources (ISDR 2002).

Disaster in Global context - The impact of natural disasters in terms of human and economic losses has risen in recent years, society in general has become more vulnerable to natural disasters. Those usually most affected by natural and other disasters are the poor and socially disadvantaged groups in developing countries as they are least equipped to cope with them (IFRC 2001).

1. Introduction

Disasters are events that occur over a period and cause widespread destruction, suffering, or distress to everything they affect (Oxford English Dictionary, n.d.). The impact of a disaster may be confined to specific areas or widespread and could last for an extended duration, often requiring assistance from external sources to address the aftermath (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies [IFRC], n.d.). These events can arise from naturally occurring phenomena, such as earthquakes, tornadoes, or floods, as well as man-made occurrences, including industrial accidents (e.g., accidental toxic spills or nuclear power plant events) or acts of terrorism (e.g., bombing or poisoning) (United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction [UNDRR], n.d.). Disasters typically result in significant harm to infrastructure, loss of life, displacement of people, and severe economic consequences.

Introduction

Disaster may be defined as a sudden event that causes damage to life, property and destroy the economic, social and cultural life of people. It could be of natural or anthropogenic origin. Disasters impact the poor and the most vulnerable section of the community. Over the past 30 years, more than 2.5 million people and nearly $4 trillion have been lost to natural disasters in India; globally the losses jumped from $50 billion a year in the 1980s to $200 billion in the last decade (NIDM, 2019).According to a World Bank report, nearly 75% of the losses are attributable to extreme weather events and climate change threatening to push an additional 100 million people into the extreme poverty by 2030 (Hallegatte et al., 2016). The Bank’s Unbreakable report finds that natural disasters had larger and long-lasting impacts on the poverty. Population growth and rapid urbanization are major driving factors for an increase in the disaster risks.

The United Nations estimates that more than two-thirds of the world’s population will live in cities by 2050 (NIDM, 2019). This could put 1.3 billion people and $158 trillion assets at risk from river and coastal floods alone. According to the Bank’s Investing in Urban Resilience report (2016), by 2030, without significant investment into making cities more resilient, natural disasters may cost cities worldwide $314 billion each year.

Introduction
In the past, the approach to disaster management was relief-focused and restricted to helping the area affected by the disaster. involves a continuous and integrated process of organizing, coordinating, and putting into action measures that are required or advantageous for preventing danger or threats, mitigating risk or its severity or consequences, building capacity through research and knowledge management, being ready to deal with any disaster, responding quickly to any situation that poses a threat to the community, determining the extent or severity of effects, evacuation, rescue and relief efforts, rehabilitation, and reconstruction.
Phases and Elements in Disaster Management
I. Pre-disaster phase: There are three components to the pre-disaster phase: preparedness, mitigation, and prevention.
II. The aftermath phase, encompassing response, recuperation, and restoration. All these components are connected by a structure of institutions and legislation.

9.1 What are Natural Disasters?

The natural disasters are earthquakes, floods, droughts, famines, heat waves, cyclones, wild fire, volcanic, aerosols (small particles), and landslides.

9.2 Disaster Management

Both physical solutions and institutional strategies should be developed to manage natural disasters. For flood disaster control the water flow should be checked. Institutional strategies do not rely on physical barriers and include flood plain management, flood and disaster warning systems, education and preparedness programmes.

Efforts to Mitigate Natural Disaster at National and Global Level

What is A ‘Disaster’?

It as ‘an event that has occurred unexpectedly with destructive consequences’ - (UNOCHA 2005). 
It as ‘a calamitous event resulting in loss of life, great human suffering and distress, and large scale material damage’ - (IFRC2005).
None of the international agencies take animals into account in their definitions

A disaster is any event natural or manmade which creates an intense negative impact on people goods and services and or the environment and exceeds the affected community internal capability to respond prompting the need to seek outside assistance. In other words a disaster is a serious disturbance of a community or society interfere human resources losses and impacts on economically and environmentally or disaster means simply an event has unfortunate consequences on only on human but also on whole environment. Disaster can be two types’ Natural disaster and manmade disaster.

1. The most disaster affected populations in the world - China,

2. Heavy droughts usually occur in Afghanistan.

3. Heavy human causalities due to flood occur in Cambodia.

4. Ring of fire an arc of volcanoes and fault lines encircling the Pacific basin.

5. Occurrence of unusual cold wave Russia.

6. 22 Indian states are prone to disasters.

7. Pre-Disaster mitigation can help in ensuring faster recovery from impacts of disaster.

8. IOC-International Oceanographic Commission.

9. USGS-United States Geological Survey.

10. NOAA-National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrations.

Introduction
There are always going to be natural disasters like cyclones, earthquakes, and floods. They are a component of our surroundings. Nonetheless, the amount of damage caused by natural disasters can be reduced if there is a reliable warning system in place
and the impacted population is ready. Thus, while reactive mechanisms constituted the majority of disaster management in the past, a change towards a more proactive, mitigation-based strategy has been gradually observed in the last several years.
The field of emergency and disaster management focuses on mitigating and preventing potential hazards. It is a field that deals with anticipating catastrophes, responding to them (e.g., emergency evacuation, quarantine, mass decontamination, etc.), and helping to rebuild society following natural or man-made disasters. Generally speaking, emergency management is the ongoing process through which all people— individuals, organizations, and communities—manage risks in an effort to lessen the effect of catastrophes that may arise from those risks. The perception of danger by individuals who are exposed influences the actions that are taken.
Definition
The word “disaster” comes from the French word “disaster.”
A disaster is a state brought on by natural factors in which there is a significant disruption of services and infrastructure that has an adverse effect on the environment, the economy, and human life.

Introduction

A disaster is the result of an immediate situation or the result of a long, set process, which disrupts normal human life in its established social, traditional and economic system. This is due to the destruction of environment which is caused by extraordinary natural destructive phenomena or human-induced hazards resulting in human hardship and suffering beyond recovery unless external aid is brought in.

4.1 Introduction

Discharge is also called as rate of flow. Discharge is defined as the volume of water flowing through a cross section in a unit time. It can be expressed as cubic metre per second (cumec), cubic feet per second (cusec), litre per sec (lps) etc. One cumec is equivalent to 35.5 cusecs or 1000 lps. The measurement of discharge is very important in everyday life starting from deciding the amount of irrigation to be supplied to a crop at a particular growth stage, or amount of water supply for domestic and industrial uses, for flood control and power generation etc. It plays a vital role in water resources planning. If a stage-discharge (also called as gauge-discharge) relationship for a particular gauging site is developed, then daily measurement of discharge in the gauging site is not required. Discharge can be estimated from the developed relationship of discharge versus stage if the measurement of stage is known.

3.1 Introduction

Irrigation water that is supplied to crop fields is defined by a term commonly called as discharge which is also called as rate of flow. Discharge is defined as the volume of water flowing through a cross section in a unit time. It can be expressed as cubic metre per second (cumec), cubic feet per second (cusec), litre per sec (lps) etc. one cumec is equivalent to 35.5 cusecs or 1000 lps. The measurement of discharge is very important in everyday life starting from deciding the amount of irrigation to be supplied to a crop at a particular growth stage, or amount of water supply for domestic and industrial uses, for flood control and power generation etc. It plays a vital role in water resources planning.

3.2 Methods of Discharge Measurement

The various methods of discharge measurement can be broadly classified into the following types: (i) volume method of discharge measurement (ii) flow measuring structures such as orifices, mouthpieces, flumes and weirs.

9.1 Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 The probabilistic laws for dif erent values of a random variable are made on the basis of given conditions. T ese conditions are known as "prior considerations".

Q.2 If the probabilistic laws are made for dif erent values of a random variable on the basis of results obtained from an experiment, then such results are known as "a posterior inferences".9.1.1 Discrete Uniform Distribution

Q.3 A random variable X is said to have a discrete uniform distribution over the range [1, n] if its p.m.f is written as

One of the important studies in the crop improvement programme is the discriminant function analysis. This is a method of exercising selection in plants, which show the extent of which character is genetically related to yield (Goulden, 1959). The technique of discriminant function was developed by Fisher (1936). But, the application of this method for plant selection was first made by Smith (1936) in wheat. He developed an index design for the selection of plant lines in wheat using the concept of discriminant function to derive a linear equation based on observable characteristics as the best available guide to the genetic value of each line.

Stephens (1942) reported about the interaction of yield components within the plant and within the population, which serves as an index for yielding ability. According to Hazel and Lush (1943), selection for a total score or net desirability is more efficient that selection for one trait at a time. The formulae presented by them for selection index give proper weight to each trait that are more efficient than selection for one trait at a time or for several traits with an independent culling level for each trait. According to Darlington and Mather (1949) discriminant function has been defined as a linear compound of series of varieties, obtained by giving the different varieties with individual coefficients which will minimize the difference between classes relative to variation within classes of objects of which the variates are measurements. Mather (1949) reported that these functions afford to the best available means of discriminating the classes and evaluating the genotype of a plant in terms of the observed values of various characters. Pundir and Raj (1971) reported that selection index based on three characters combination i.e., seeds per siliqua, 1000 seed weight and yield per plant was efficient in toria.

ABSTRACT

This work presents the results of multispectral analysis of TM (Thematic Mapper) sensor images on board the satellite LANDSAT 5 for discrimination of selected features of a Nainarmalai region of part of Namakkal District, Tamil Nadu using hyperspectral tools. The spectral classification was carried out using hyperspectral tools namely, a) spectral reduction by the Minimum Noise Fraction (MNF) transformation, b) spatial reduction by the Pixel Purity Index (PPI) and c) manual identification of the end members using the N-dimensional visualizer. The results of study shows that the kinds of features such as magnetite quartzite, sand, harvested land and vegetation area are discriminated well (as given in the figure) and show a strong correlation with landscape.

Keywords: Landsat TM Multispectral Images, MNF transformation, PPI, endmembers, Reflectance spectrum, ENVI software.

1. INTRODUCTION

With a multispectral analysis of an images collected by radiometers and detectors embarked on a satellite, one can make: “spectroscopy by satellite imagery”. Imaging spectrometers or “multispectral sensors” are remote sensing instruments that combine the spatial presentation of an imaging sensor with the analytical capabilities of a spectrometer. With a radiometer such as AVIRIS ”Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer” where the number of spectral bands exceeds the 200, and with a spectral resolution of the order of 10 nm or narrow, it can produce a complete spectrum for each pixel of the image. The case of this radiometer enters on the “Hyperspectral” field. In the case of our study, we are using the radiometer TM (Thematic Mapper), which is on board for the satellite Landsat 5, and which only has 7 multispectral bands, with a spectral resolution of the order of 100 nm. Like finale result, one using the spectroscopy by satellite imagery, we can identify the spectra of various materials which are on various terrestrial surfaces.

This chapter outlines the design of Phase One and Phase Two of the research. It outlines the research approaches and methodology utilized in Phase One and Phase Two of the research. The chapter also provides details of the sampling strategies, data sources, collection and analysis of both the phases; and finally addresses ethical issues.

In the present investigation, nine cyanobacterial species viz. Anabaena variabilis, Anabaena fertilissima, Nostoc muscorum, Nostoc punctiforme, Nostoc linckia, Nostoc commune, Spirulina platensis, Westiellopsis prolifica and Hapalosiphon sp. were tested for their activity pattern against some selected bacterial species.
 
Each cyanobacterial species was initially subjected to determine the early stationary phase of their life-cycle, which is believed to be the most appropriate period for the production of secondary metabolites by an organism. The growth curve for each cyanobacterial species was prepared by culturing them in BG-11 growth medium. Optical densities (OD) recorded at 650 nm were plotted against number of incubation days for each cyanobacterium. After 23-25 days of incubation period, each culture was harvested to obtain the biomass and spent medium, which were then subjected to process of extraction by using various solvents viz., Hexane, ethyl acetate, dichloromethane and methanol. The extracts and spent medium thus obtained were then investigated for antibacterial activity against five pathogenic bacteria including Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pnumoniae and Salmonella typhi.

In the past, there was no targeted development of biomaterial based on scientific criteria. Instead devices consisting of material that had been designed, synthesized and fabricated for various industrial needs (the textile, aerospace, and defense industries) were tested in a trial and error fashion in the bodies of humans and animals. These unplanned and sporadic attempts had modest success. Most frequently, the results were unpredictable, mixed, and confounding both in success and in failure. In addition to traditional medical devices, diagnostic products, pharmaceutical preparations and healthcare disposables, now the list of biomaterial application includes smart delivery systems for drugs, tissue cultures, engineered tissues and hybrid organs. Undoubtedly biomaterial have had major impact on the practice of contemporary medicine and patient care in both saving and improving the quality of lives of the humans and animals4.

Health care is an important way of making sure that rabbits stay productive. Every rabbit keeper should know how to recognize and, if possible, prevent and cure illnesses which can affect rabbits.

It is always better to prevent disease incidence than to let animals get ill and then try to treat them. Allowing rabbits to get sick is expensive for several reasons, sick animals stops growing and reproducing so money is lost with this decrease in production, some disease results in the death of rabbits, replacing the dead rabbits is expensive , treatment for the ill rabbits is usually expensive.

Introduction

In agriculture, plant diseases have always been a major problem, as they cause crop quality to decrease, resulting in yield. Plant disease has a range of effects from minor symptoms to serious damages in whole crop areas, which lead to high financial costs and significantly impact the agricultural economy, particularly in developing countries dependent on a single crop or on a few crops.

Various approaches have been developed to detect disease in order to avoid significant losses. Causal agents have been precisely defined by methods developed in molecular biology and immunology. However, for many farmers these techniques are inaccessible and require detailed knowledge of the field or substantial time and energy to be used. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, most farms in the world are small and family-owned in developed countries. Such families provide food for a significant proportion of the population of the planet. However, hunger and food insecurity are not rare and there is restricted access to markets and services. For the above reasons, a great deal of work has been undertaken in order to establish methods that are sufficiently reliable and available to most farmers. Where Plant disease is an essential factor contributing to a major decline in plant production quality and quantity. Plant disease identification and classification are a significant role in improving plant production and economic development.

Introduction

Most common improvement of host resistance to almost any pathogen is brought about by improving the genetic resistance of the host, that is by breeding and using resistance varieties.

Genetic engineering technology made possible the isolation of individual resistance (R) genes from resistant plants and the transfer of such genes into susceptible plants in which they induce the hypersensitive resistant response.

Thus, genetic engineering technology combined with Conventional plant breeding, will provide one of the most effective tools for controlling plant diseases.

Introduction

Food is the most basic necessity for man. Plants are primary producers of food. Plants are the very pivot of our existence on earth and without plants the earth would be without life. The success or failure of crop production relies on interaction among varieties/genotypes, inputs used, environment and management factors. Plant diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses, phytoplasmas and nematodes reduce crop yields (Khoury and Makkouk, 2010). Arid fruit crops like ber, aonla, date palm, pomegranate and vegetables like watermelon/mateera, kachri, snapmelon, muskmelon, ridge gourd and sponge gourd are mostly grown in Central and Western India. Horticultural crops can be infected by wilt, leaf spots (due to excessive moisture), mosaic and post harvest fruit rots. These diseases are major challenges in the cultivation of horticultural crops in India. Disease incidence in a crop is governed with the seed materials used and environment surrounding seed/plant.

A management tool for anticipating the onset of diseases in plants is called plant disease forecasting. This management method makes use of data on the past, present, and predicted weather in a particular area to forecast the onset and severity of disease in the future. In this sense, a plant disease forecasting system notifies farmers ahead of time whether or not to modify their crop protection strategies to ward against pests. The disease forecasting method lowers financial costs, farmer production loss, and negative environmental effects when it is timely and precisely forecasted. These systems ought to be prepared for diseases like these, which don’t happen often but rather manifest destructively during opportune weather.

Requirements for Disease Forecasting

Systems for forecasting plant diseases are based on the “disease triangle,” which describes how the environment, host, and pathogen interact. Therefore, information on these variables is necessary for the accurate forecasting of a disease outbreak in the future. Following questions and answers cover various aspects of disease forecasting and pathometry, including their impact on integrated disease management, environmental considerations, and specific challenges in different agricultural settings.

Abstract

Climate change is a long-term change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods of time that range from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in the average weather conditions or a change in the distribution of weather events with respect to an average. Climate change may be limited to a specific region, or may occur across the whole Earth.Since, time immemorial human beings have attempted to predict the disease occurrence informally by mere observing the changes in pattern of weather parameters. But the present scenario has been very much altered with the incessant and irrational use of natural resources exposing the atmosphere to the enormous encumbrance. Excessive CO₂ emissions, deforestation and injudicious use of chemicals in agricultural fields have ultimately led to the climate change, which needs an absolute engrossment. Climate change has also invited the emergence and resurgence of many of the pest and diseases posing a grave challenge to manage them. So there is a need for immediate action through Government policies and scientific community to combat the situation. Disease forecasting models may be one of the rescuing options to mitigate the problems of agriculture.

8.1 Disease Prevention and Control in Aquaculture

Aquaculture, the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, shellfish, and plants, faces significant challenges related to disease management. Diseases in aquaculture can result from viral, bacterial, fungal, or parasitic pathogens, and their outbreaks can lead to substantial economic losses and environmental impacts. Effective disease prevention and control strategies are crucial to sustainably manage aquaculture operations and ensure the health and welfare of cultured species.

Key Strategies for Disease Prevention and Control

1. Biosecurity Measures

Biosecurity is foundational in preventing the introduction and spread of diseases within aquaculture facilities. It involves a set of management practices aimed at minimizing the risk of pathogen transmission through various pathways:

• Quarantine Protocols: New stocks should undergo quarantine periods before introduction to production systems. This allows for health screening and observation to detect and isolate potentially diseased individuals.

Importance of fruits in human diet is well recognized since time immemorial. They are important part of a healthy diet as natural sources of energy, essential vitamins, minerals and antioxidants ever since the beginning of humancivilization. Our country is bestowed with varied climatic conditions, which had made it possible to grow diverse group of fruits from its temperate to tropical, to subtropical and even to arid niches. The cultivation of fruit crops is, presently, one of the most important and profitable proposition. Growing fruit crops translate into realization of more yield/ income from a unit area of land than any of the agronomic crops. However, there is need to considerably increase the yield of fruit crops, particularly under changing environmental conditions as under such conditions diseases are getting more prevalent. Therefore by adoption of proper protection practices, yield of fruit crops can be improved.

Plant diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses and phytoplasmas reduce crop yields (Khoury and Makkouk, 2010).Adoption and support for using participatory approaches help to farmers in disease management of fruit crops, reducing costs and improving production efficiency. Fungal, bacterial and viral diseases pose serious threat in the cultivation of fruit crops in India. To reduce the losses caused by plant disease, a complete knowledge of disease management strategies of fruit crops are essential which are as follows:

1. DISEASES OF MANGO

Mango is considered to be the king of fruit. India is the largest producer and exporter of mango in the world. Mango possess unique nutritional and medicinal qualities apart from being a rich source of vitamins A & C, besides its attractive form and appearance, delicious taste and appetizing flavor, the ripe mango fruit according to nutritional experts is also highly invigorating, fattening, laxative and diuretic. Every part of mango from root to tip is used in a variety of ways. This crop is affected by many fungal, bacterial and other non parasitic diseases.

1. Mango Malformation Disease (MMD)

Mango Malformation Disease is a fungal disease of mango caused by several species of Fusarium, some yet to be described. Mango is the only known host of the disease. The disease spreads on a tree very slowly, but if left unchecked, can severely reduce yields. The main method of spreading MMD to new areas is through infected vegetative planting material. There is no evidence that the disease can spread on fruit or the seeds, or that it affects human health. It usually associated with the bud mite, Aceria mangiferae but the mites have been shown to spread the disease within a tree and not between the trees. Mango malformation, also known as bunchy top, is a very serious threat to the mango industry, particularly in northern India. The Etiology of the disease still remains obscure and diverse claims have been made about its causes, e.g., physiological, viral, fungal, acarological and nutritional.