eChapters

pH is important as a measure of active acidity which influences the flavour and palatability of the product and affects the processing requirements. This is an indicator of the acidity or alkalinity of the solution. It is also taken as the measure of the sourness or tartness of the given sample. The pH of a solution varies from 0 to 14. Solutions having a value of pH ranging from 0 to 7 on the pH scale are termed as acidic and the value of pH ranging from 7 to 14 on the pH scale are known as basic solutions. While, solutions with a pH value equal to 7 on the pH scale are known as neutral solutions. Samples with a pH value equal to 0 are known to be strongly acidic. Further, the acidity decreases as the value of pH increases from 0 to 7 whereas, solutions with the value of pH equal to 14 are termed as strongly basic solutions.
Most fruits have a pH value ranging between 3-4, with citrus fruits exhibiting a pH of up to 2.0. Vegetables may exhibit a pH of up to 6.0, as such they are classified as non-acid or low-acid foods. Based on pH value, most fruits, vegetables, and their products are classified into four arbitrary groups such as low acid (5.3 and higher); medium acid (5.3-4.5), acidic (4.5-3.7), and high acid (3.7 and lower). pH value of some fruits, vegetables, and their products is given as under:

In fruits, vegetables, and their products, the sugars are estimated as reducing sugars, non-reducing sugars, and total sugars. Reducing sugars in fruits and their products represent glucose and fructose. A combination of reducing and non-reducing sugars gives total sugars, whereas non-reducing sugars mainly sucrose are calculated after deducting the value of reducing sugars from the total sugars as invert sugar and multiplying the remainder with a factor of 0.95. Many fruit, vegetables, and their products like jam, jelly, juice, preserve, candy, fruit toffees, etc., containing substantial amounts of sugars, are estimated as a routine by using Lane and Eynon’s method using Fehling’s solution. However, for products having a smaller quantity of sugars, more precise methods like colorimetric methods can be used.
Method: Lane and Eynon’s Method
Principle: Invert sugar reduces the copper in Fehling’s solution to red, insoluble cuprous oxide. The sugar content in a food sample is estimated by determining the volume of the unknown sugar solution required to completely reduce a known volume of Fehling’s solution. Glucose, fructose and other] sugars capable of reducing oxidizing agents are called reducing sugars and this property is used for the estimation of sugars.

Fruit, vegetables and their products are important sources of ascorbic acid. Aonla, guava and citrus fruits are good sources of Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid).Ascorbic acid is sensitive to heat, light and oxygen but is stable in acidic
 media. The methods for estimation of Ascorbic acid are based on the reduction of 2,6 -dichlorophenol - indophenol dye by ascorbic acid and those based on the reaction of dehydroascorbic acid with 2,4- dinitrophenylhydrazine. However,the 2,6 -dichlorophenol - indophenol dye reduction method is most commonly used in the estimation of ascorbic acid in fresh fruit and vegetables and their processed products.
2,6 dichlorophenol - indophenol visual titration method
The dye, which is blue in an alkaline solution and red in an acid solution, isreduced by ascorbic acid to a colorless form. The reduction is quantitative and specific for ascorbic acid in solutions in the pH range of 1-3.5.
Reagents
i. 3% Metaphosphoric acid (HPO3) solution:Dissolve 3g sticks/ pelletsofMetaphosphoric acidin a volumetric flask and make volume to 1oo ml with glassdistilled water.

The use of salt (Sodium Chloride) in food products is an important method of preservation. It not only imparts taste to the products but also helps in checking spoilage of fruit products. Salt is added to pickles, sauces, chutneys, ketchup, and many other products. Food Safety & Standards Regulation has specified the maximum limit of salt in different products. Therefore, the estimation of salt content in food products is considered as an important attribute in food quality control.
Direct Titration Method
Direct titration (Mohr’s) method is used for the determination of salt content in food products as a routine quality control. In this method, the sample is titrated against a standard solution of silver nitrate for the estimation of salt.
Reagents
0.1 N NaOH, Phenolphthalein 1% indicator solution
0.1N Silver nitrate (AgNO3)
5% Potassium Chromate

Sodium benzoate is added to many fruit products to act as a preservative for the extension of the shelf life. Food Safety and Standards Regulations have specified the maximum level of sodium benzoate (Benzoic acid) in different products like sauce, ketchup, pickles, squash, etc. Therefore, the estimation of sodium benzoate (benzoic acid) in such products is considered a routine quality control procedure.
Principle
Benzoic acid which is sparingly soluble in water is converted into watersoluble sodium benzoate by the addition of NaOH in a sample containing sodium chloride solution. When the Sodium Benzoate solution is acidified with excess HCl, water-in-soluble benzoic acid is formed which is extracted with chloroform. The chloroform is removed by evaporation and the residue containing benzoic acid is dissolved in alcohol and then titrated with standard NaOH.

Sulphur dioxide is used as a preservative in many fruit and vegetable products. It can be added either in the form of potassium metabisulphite or by exposingthe product to sulphur fumigation by burning sulphur powder. Food safety and standards regulations have specified the maximum limit of sulphur dioxide in the finished products. Products having sulphur dioxide content exceeding the limit are considered not conforming to Indian Food Laws. Therefore, the estimation of sulphur dioxide in food products is considered an important attribute for quality evaluation.
Principle
Sulphur dioxide added to the food products may exist as undissociated sulphurous acid, as free bisulphite ions, as free sulphite ions and/or as combined SO2 in the form of hydroxy sulphonates. Sulphur dioxide is measured as free or total SO2.
Free SO2 is measured by direct titration with iodine. In the estimation of total SO2, the combined SO2 is liberated by treatment with excess alkali at room temperature, followed by subsequent acidification to prevent recombination and titration with iodine. The method used is known as the Modified Ripper Titration Method.

Starch is the storage form of carbohydrates in plants which is abundantly found in roots, tubers, stems, fruits, and cereals. It is a polysaccharide made up of glucose monomers with a chemical formula of (C6H10O5)n. Starch is composed ofamylose and amylopectin. The linear polymer amylose is the most basic form of starch while amylopectin is the branched form. Foods that are high in starch content are a good source of nutrition. Food starches are used in the food industry as thickeners and stabilizers. During the ripening of fruits, the starch is converted into sugars. Therefore, the presence of starch in fruits is used as an indication of maturity and ripening.
Principle: For estimation of starch contents, the sugars present in the sample are leached out and starch is hydrolyzed using either acid or enzymatic hydrolysis. Stach is then calculated as invert sugars.
Starch content by Acid Hydrolysis method
Reagents: Ethanol 95%, /50%,Concentrated HCl, Concentrated H2SO4, 1N NaOH solution, Phenolphthalein indicator, 10% alcoholic solution of Alphanaphthol.

The term canning refers to a process that involves heating foodstuff in hermetically sealed containers for a specific time at a specific temperature to eliminate microbial pathogens that endanger public health; and microorganisms and enzymes that deteriorate food during storage.
Principle of canning: Destruction of micro-organisms causing spoilage, within the sealed containers using heat.
Canning Process
Preparation of food commodities for canning consists of selection of commodities, washing, sorting, grading, peeling, halving, blanching, filling into cans, filling hot syrup or brine, exhausting, double seaming, Sterilization/ processing, cooling, storage, etc.
Raw material selection
Fruits should be ripe but firm, evenly matured, and free from blemishes, insect damage, and malformation. Apple, pear, peach, and banana harvested at the mature stage are preferred for canning.

Fruit pulps are semi-finished products that are used for manufacturing finished value-added products like jam, ready-to-serve beverages, squash, appetizers etc. According to Food Laws, pulp refers to an unfermented but fermentable product, pulpy, turbid or clear, obtained by a mechanical process from sound ripe fruits/vegetables. These are preserved either by heat processing or by using chemical preservatives. The maximum preservative permitted under Indian Food Laws is 1000 ppm sulphur dioxide added in the form of potassium metabisulphite.
Mango, guava, apple, pineapple, papaya, bael, guava, peach, plum, apricot etc., are the most suitable fruits for making pulp for use in finished product preparation.
Procedure
i. Select fully mature and ripe fruit like mango, guava, apple, peach, apricot, kiwi, etc., and wash thoroughly.

Squash is a type of fruit beverage containing at least 25% fruit juice/pulp, not less than 40% total soluble solids (TSS), about 1-1.5% acid and not exceeding 350ppm sulphur dioxide or 600ppm sodium benzoate. Squash is diluted by adding cold/chilled water before serving (1:3).
Mango, orange, lemon, lime, litchi, guava, pineapple, jamun, plum, apricot, rhododendron petals etc., are used for making squash. Potassium metabisulphite (KMS) is generally used as a preservative, whereas sodium benzoate is used as a preservative in squash made from coloured fruits like plum, jamun, phalsa and rhododendron petals.
Recipe: A generalized recipe for the preparation of squashes from different
fruits as a general guideline is as under:

Cordial is a sparkling, clear, sweetened fruit juice beverage from which pulp/ fibrous material has been removed completely. It contains at least 25% fruit juice, 30% total soluble solids (TSS), 1.5% acid and 350 ppm sulphur dioxide. Lemon and lime are the most suitable fruits for making cordial.
Recipe: The recipe for the preparation of cordial as a general guideline is as under:
Extract the juice from lime or lemon as in squash and store in glass bottles after adding potassium metabisulphite @ 1.0 g/kg of the juice. Allow the juice to settle for a month. Decant the clear juice without disturbing sediments and strain it through a fine muslin cloth. Prepare syrup by mixing sugar with water, boil, strain and allow to cool. On cooling, mix juice in syrup and strain the cordial through muslin cloth if necessary. Add KMS and fill into bottles. Stor in a cool and dry place.

Ready -to -Serve (RTS) drink is a type of fruit beverage that contains at least 10% fruit juice/pulp and 10o Brix total soluble solids with acidity ranging between 0.3-0.5%. The product is not diluted before serving like squash; hence it is called a ready-to-serve beverage. The product can be preserved by using 70 ppm SO2  or 120 ppm benzoic acid. Mango, orange, guava, lemon, lime, litchi, kiwi fruit, apricot, pineapple, etc., fruits are used for making RTS beverages. For lime & lemon drinks minimum level of juice content is 5% as per Indian Food Laws.
Recipe: As a general guideline, the following recipe is used for the preparation of ready-to-serve drinks:
Procedure
i. Select fully mature and ripe fruit like mango, guava, apricot, kiwi, etc., and wash thoroughly.
ii. Some fruits like mango, kiwi, pineapple, and litchi are peeled before heating. Apricots, guava, plums etc are not peeled. Place fruit after peeling in a pan/pressure cooker and boil till softening

Fruit nectar is a type of fruit beverage that contains not less than 20% fruit juice or pulp, not less than 15o B total soluble solids and acidity ranging between
0.3-0.5 % but not exceeding 1.5%/. For orange and pineapple nectar, the fruit juice shall not be less than 40%. The product is preserved by heat processing/ thermal processing, as such no chemical preservative is permitted in nectars. Unlike squashes, fruit nectar is served chilled as such without any dilution.
Mango, guava, pineapple, papaya, jamun etc., are the most suitable fruits for making nectar.
Recipe: As a general guideline, the following recipe is used for the preparation of fruit nectar:
Procedure
i. Select fully mature and ripe fruit and extract pulp as discussed under fruit pulp making but do not add any chemical preservative.

Jam is prepared by boiling the fruit pulp with a sufficient quantity of sugar to a thick consistency, firm enough to hold fruit tissues in position. For the preparation of jam, not less than 45 parts of fruits are used for every 55 parts of sugar. The jam prepared by using two or more fruit pulps is called mixed fruit jam. Apple jam, apricot jam, mango jam, guava jam, pineapple jam, and mixed fruit jam prepared by using the pulp of two or more fruits are quite common. According to Food Safety & Standards Regulations,2011 the minimum TSS in the Jam shall not be less than 65%(w/w). Earlier the minimum limit was 68% (w/w)
Raw material, ingredients and utensils required
1. Fruits like mangoes, guava, apples, apricots, plum, peaches and kiwi etc singly or in combination
2. Stainless steel knives, de-corers, ladle, utensils for cooking and mixing, glass bottles (Jars), LPG or Diesel Bhatti, bucket/tub for washing, Stainless steel sieve, Steam Jacketted Kettle, Boiler (for the commercial unit) etc. 

Jelly is prepared by boiling the fruit with or without the addition of water, straining the extract, and mixing the clear extract with sugar followed by cooking the mixture to a stage at which it will set to a clear gel. The jelly should be transparent, well set, but not too stiff, and have an original flavour of the fruit. It should be attractive in colour and should keep its shape when removed from the mould. As per FSSAI specification, the quantity of fruit and soluble solids in the final product (jelly and marmalade) shall not be less than 45 and 65 per cent (w/w) respectively. Jelly is made from fruit extract while jam is made from fruit pulp, therefore, jelly in contrast to jam is considered to be transparent and clear in appearance. Guava jelly is the most common commercial product.
Jellies: In the preparation of jellies, pectin is the most essential constituent which help in making the gel. Since, pectin is present in the cell walls of fruits as such fruit peel, whole or fruit slices along with a small quantity of water are gently boiled to extract the maximum proportion of pectin solution in the water extract. This water extract is used for the preparation of jelly.

Marmalade is a fruit jelly in which the slices of peel are suspended. The marmalades are prepared generally from citrus fruits like orange and lemon. The pectin and acid contents of the marmalades should be kept slightly higher  than that for jellies. Citrus marmalades are of two types: i) Sweet marmalade and ii) Bitter marmalade.
Procedure
Preparation of fruit extract: After washing the fruit, remove the outer yellow flavedo portion of the peel of citrus fruits thinly which contains colouring matter and volatile oils, whereas the inner white albedo portion contains pectin. The thin yellow peel is cut into fine shreds with a knife, or on a shredding machine, and the shreds are boiled and drained to remove the bitterness. The sliced or crushed fruit is boiled gently by simmering with 2 or 3 times its weight of water to extract the pectin. While it is being boiled, a teaspoonful of the clear extract is taken from the pan and tested with alcohol for its pectin content. The process usually takes 30 to 45 minutes.

Fruit chutney is a product made in the same way as jam except that spices, salt, and acid (vinegar) in addition are added. The total soluble solids in chutney are] also less than that of jam. The product shall be of good quality with a palatable and appetizing taste. As per Food Safety and Standards Regulations, chutney\ shall contain a minimum of 40% fruit (w/w) in the final product with total soluble solids not less than 50%. The acidity in the final product shall not be more than 2% with ash content not exceeding 5%. However, for vegetablebased chutney as well as hot & sour (spicy) chutney, the TSS shall not be less than 25%.
Recipe: The generalized recipe for the preparation of chutney from different fruits is as under:

Fruit syrup is a beverage that contains at least 25% fruit juice/pulp, 65% total  soluble solids and acidity ranging between 1.2 -1.5%. It is preserved by using
350 ppm SO2 or 600 ppm benzoic acid. Fruit syrup is diluted before serving. Syrup can be made from the juice/pulp of jamun, ginger, lemon, phalsa, rose extract, bael, pomegranate, and brahmi (Bacopa monnieri) leaves/root extract, etc. Besides, a syrup/sharbat containing a minimum of 10 per cent of dry fruits is also regarded as fruit syrup.
Recipe: The generalized recipe for the preparation of syrups from different fruits is as under:

Preserve (Murabba) is made by cooking the fruit either whole or in slices/ pieces in sugar syrup of heavy concentration (65-70oBrix). Usually for 1 kg fruit around 1.75 kg sugar is used and the cooking is continued till the TSS reaches 68oB. Fruits like petha (ash gourd), aonla, bael, apple, pear, karonda, pineapple and papaya etc., are used for making preserve/murabba.
Candies are also prepared similarly but the TSS is maintained up to 75-80%. For candy preparation, the fruit pieces are dipped initially in 55-60% sugar solution and the TSS of the syrup is increased by 5% everyday up to 4-5 days and then the fruit slices are drained free of syrup and dried in driers. Fruits like aonla, karonda, cherry, apple, ginger peels of orange, lemon, and grapefruit etc., and petha (ash gourd), are used for candy preparation.
Selection and preparation of fruits: Wash the fruits in water to remove dirt and residues. Peel, core and cut the fruits into pieces. Pricking should be done with stainless steel forks. In case of petha (ash gourd), after pricking place them in lime water

Tomato, apple, plum, mushroom, etc., are used successfully for the preparation of sauces. Sauces are of two kinds 1) thin sauces consisting of vinegar extracts of flavoring material like herbs or spices and 2) thick sauces which are highly viscous.
Sauces are prepared by maceration of spices, herbs, fruits, and vegetables in cold vinegar or by boiling. Thickening agents like pectin, carboxymethylcellulose,n etc., are also added to sauces to prevent the sedimentation of solid particles. The sauce is generally cooked to such a consistency that it can be freely poured without fruit tissues.
Procedure
Tomato fruits are washed, cut into pieces, and heated/boiled for about 10 minutes in their own juice in SS pan to soften the tissue. The heated fruit mass is passed through a pulper to separate skin and seeds. Half of the sugar and spices are placed in a muslin cloth bag which is then immersed in the pulp during cooking. Cooking is continued till the pulp is reduced to half of the original volume.

Drying and dehydration are interrelated terms. Drying generally refers to the method of removal of moisture from the food under natural conditions such as sunlight and wind for example open sun drying, shade drying etc. Whereas, dehydration refers to a process of removal of moisture by application of artificial heat under controlled conditions of temperature and airflow. In this case single layer of fruit and vegetables, either whole or sliced after primary pretreatments is spread on trays which are placed inside the dehydrator or in the open sun for drying. In the dehydrator, the initial temperature is generally kept at 43oC which is then gradually increased to 66-71oC for fruits and 60- 66oC for vegetables. Dried grapes (raisins and monucca), apricots, dates, apple rings/cubes, Morchella (Guchhi), bael, aonla, fig, green peas, cauliflower, cabbage, onion, garlic etc are commercial products prepared by using drying.
Procedure for drying: Drying generally involves three stages: pre-drying treatments or pre-treatments, drying of commodity and post-drying operations such as handling, packaging and storage. The flow sheet for drying of fruit and vegetables is shown in Figure 1 and details of pretreatments for drying fruits and vegetables are shown in Table 1&2 respectively.

A cut-out examination is conducted for the evaluation of canned fruit and vegetables and other products for various quality attributes, viz., physical, chemical, sensory, and microbiological attributes. The examination is conducted by following the undermentioned steps: External/physical examination of unopened Can
1. External Appearance of the tin can: Note the external condition of the tin can like dents, rusty spots, scratches, leakage around seams, and the condition of ends. Based on external appearance describe the condition of the tin can by using the following terms:
i. Flat Can: A can where both ends are concave. The vacuum is high enough to maintain the ends concave.
ii. Flipper Can: A can where the vacuum is so low that mechanical shock will produce distortion of one or both ends.
iii. Springer Can: A can in which one end is distorted and the other end is flat and pressure on the convex end will cause the flat end to spring out when pressed.

History of plant breeding
The process of plant breeding takes care of changing or modifying the genetically controlled characters of a particular variety or genotype of a crop. The practice of age-old agriculture uses the process of selection from the existing variability to save a particular quality of seed to grow better crops in the next harvest.
Gregor Mendel who is known as the father of Genetics discovered the law of segregation in the middle of the 1800s. This theory forms the base for the process of plant breeding. The primitive ways used for plant breeding are very different than what modern technology has contributed to the process of plant breeding during the 20th century.
Plant breeding is the science and art of purposeful manipulation of characters of crop species to create new varieties with a set of desired characteristics. Significance of plant breeding has been highlighted especially after the “Green Revolution”.

History of Agriculture
Cultivation of crops is one of the oldest occupations of mankind and probably began when it was discovered that certain seeds spilled on disturbed ground, grew in some mysterious way into new plants. The seeds were then collected and spread into different regions. This is how origin and introduction of crop plants started. Development of agriculture about 12,000 to13,000 years ago changed the way humans lived. They switched from nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles to permanent settlements and farming. However, scientists are unable to explain why man took so long to discover agriculture. Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe and included a diverse range of taxa. At least eleven separate regions of the Old and New world were involved as independent centers of origin however, there was no single factor or combination of factors that led people to try farming in different parts of the world. Farming could have been brought on by climate changes at the end of the last ice age that favoured different annual plants like wild cereals to grow. But whatever the reasons for its independent origins, farming sowed the seeds for the modern age. Archeological evidence for the origin of crops points to mountainous areas of both Old World (Asia, Europe and Africa) and New World (North and South America), which have pronounced wet and dry seasons. Under such climatic conditions seeds would need to germinate, grow quickly with the onset of rains, complete their reproductive cycles and go to seed formation before summer sets in such as we see in annual plants.

Mode of reproduction
All the living organisms produce individuls of their own kind for the survival of their species which is called reproduction. Hence, reproduction is the biological process by which new individual organism (offspring) are produced from their “parents”. In vegetable crops, modes of reproduction may be sexual, asexual and both. Most of the vegetable crops viz., tomato, brinjal, chilli, sweet pepper, peas, cowpea, hyacinth bean, French bean, cluster bean, runner bean, fenugreek, lettuce, cabbage, cauliflower, knolkhol, Brussels sprouts, sprouting broccoli, radish, beet, turnip, carrot, onion, leek, amaranth, palak, spinach, asparagus, pumpkin, bottle gourd, watermelon, muskmelon, ridge gourd, snake gourd, wax gourd, summer squash, bitter gourd, cucumber, sweet corn, coriander, parsnip, etc. are exclusively propagated sexually for both commercial cultivation and breeding purpose. Some vegetable crops like, pointed gourd, teasle gourd, yam, taro, Jerusalem artichoke, globe artichoke, etc. are exclusively propagated through asexual mode of reproduction. On the other hand, some vegetable crops like, potato, sweet potato, cassava, annual moringa, etc. can be propagated by both sexual and asexual modes of reproduction however, they are generally propagated asexually for commercial cultivation and their sexual reproduction is employed for the purpose of breeding.

Male-sterility
Normal development of the male reproductive organ (stamen) and male gametophyte (pollen grain) is essential for successful completion of sexual reproduction in angiosperms. Abnormalities at any stage of stamen and pollen development can result in male sterility. Male sterility in plants implies the inability to produce or to release functional pollen. Male sterility is caused due to failure in the formation or development of functional stamens, microspores or gametes and /or release of pollens from the anther. Male-sterility can result from mutations in nuclear genes alone or mitochondrial genes or mitochondrial genes coupled with nuclear genes. The resulting conditions are known as genic male sterility (GMS), cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) and cytoplasmic-genic male sterility (CGMS), respectively.
Classification of male-sterility
1. Genetic male-sterility
This male-sterility is caused due to mutations in nuclear genes alone or mitochondrial genes or mitochondrial genes coupled with nuclear genes which results abnormalities at any stage of stamen and pollen development.

Plant breeding is the purposeful manipulation of characters in plants to create new genotype with a set of desired characters. Hence, it may basically be referred to as designed manipulation of the heritable variation for the character concerned. Living organisms possess the remarkable capacity to convert the non-living materials into living staff, which results in movement, growth, metabolism and reproduction, and thus continuity of living organisms from one generation to the next is accomplished. The continuity of life through transmission of characters is the subject of the study of heredity, while the resemblances and differences between individuals of the same or different generations is the concern of the study of variation. These two universal processes of continuity and of change, which are referred to as “Heredity” and “Variation” are primary consequences of all organisms. Organized study of these two biological processes is the science of Genetics.
Plant breeding, which may be termed as evolution of plant type directed by the will of mankind, is basically the process of selection of character(s) from heritable variation. Desirable heritable variations can also be induced through some genetic consequences like, hybridization, segregation, mutation, changing the number of chromosomes, etc. So frame of plant breeding lay on three basics:

Vegetable breeding is the purposeful genetic manipulation of qualities in vegetable crops to create new varieties with a set of desired characteristics that are better suited for cultivation, give better yield, quality and are resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses. Vegetable breeding can be accomplished through many different techniques ranging from plant introduction, simply selecting plants with desirable characteristics, to more complex molecular techniques. Classical plant breeding includes hybridization followed by selection and mutation to develop the desirable plant types. With the advancements in genetics, molecular biology and in vitro culture, different molecular genetics tools are also being used in vegetable breeding.
Sexually propagated vegetable crops
1. Plant Introduction
The term “Plant introduction” describes the movement of crop plants, species, varieties, wild species, etc. from their original growing sites to other locations where it was not grown earlier. Plant introduction is essentially the method of cultivating crop plants in a new environments. The agro-climatic conditions can differ greatly depending on the origin of the plant species and the area where they are introduced. Plant introduction is a time-honored strategy for improving crop diversity.

Mutation breeding is a method that uses physical radiation or chemical means to induce genetic variation in plants to develop new crop varieties. Mutation can be defined as a sudden heritable change in the character of an organism which is not due to either segregation or recombination. Mutation is the source of most genetic variation and the motor of evolution. It is a natural process, which occurs spontaneously and slowly over generations in plants, animals and all living beings. It involves alteration of their DNA, leading to the development of changes within the organism. Mutation may be sped up through the treatment of physical or chemical mutagens to achieve alteration in characteristics that are useful for the development of new variety of a plant species.
Spontaneous mutations
Spontaneous mutations are the net result of all that can go wrong with DNA during the life cycle of an organism (Glickman et al., 1986). Thus, the types and amounts of spontaneous mutations produced are the resultant of all the cellular processes that are mutagenic and those that are anti-mutagenic. Spontaneous mutations occur naturally without any apparent cause however, there are two possible sources of origin of these mutations.

The term genome refers to a complete set of DNA, including all of its genes. Each genome contains all of the information needed to build and maintain that organism. In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule is packaged into thread like structures called chromosomes and each species has specific chromosome number. Most of the plants are diploid and they show in each one of its body cell, twice the number of haploid chromosomes (n) found in the gametes.
There are two main types of chromosomal variation that involve changes in the number. These are euploidy (in Greek “eu”means true or even and “ploid”means unit), which involves the variation of whole sets of chromosomes and aneuploidy(“aneu” means uneven), where a single chromosome within a set varies. This variation may be either increase or decrease in the chromosome number. The euploids include diploid (2n), triploid (3n), tetraploid (4n), hexaploid (6n) or even higher degree of polyploidy. Polyploidy, thus involves more than two genomes and is, therefore, a genometic mutation involving increase in the dose of whole genome. This condition of polyploidy is more common in angiosperms.

The effect of inbreeding and outbreeding was found in ancient time in animals and human beings since civilization. Hence, the phenomenon “Heterosis” was conceived since pre-Mendelian era. But in plants this phenomenon was recognized only 200 years ago. Koelreuter (1766) first published his scientific investigation on hybridization. Knight (1799) first recorded increased vigour following crossing. Mendel (1865) also observed increased vigour in pea hybrids. Charles Darwin (1876) suggested that cross-fertilization was beneficial whereas self-fertilization was injurious. However, the scientific concept of heterosis phenomenon was established in post-Mendellian era by the monumental work by East (1908) and Shull (1908).
General concepts of Heterosis
• Heterosis is the widely occurring genetically governed biological phenomenon involving both plants and animals.
• It frequently occurs in plants and is found mostly in cross-pollinated plant species than in self-pollinated plants.
• It is built in evolutionary mechanism favouring better survival of heterozygotes in nature.

In the changing Global scenario, food, nutrition, healthcare and livelihood security are the matter of great concern to human, social and economic development. The global community is increasingly looking towards finding means of sustainable nutrition for the growing population across all countries. The emphasis is on identifying lowresource strategies acceptable to the communities that do not put an unnecessary burden on the environment (FAO, 1993).
Nutritional security denotes the consumption and equitable access to adequate quantities of healthy, safe, affordable and nutritious food by every member of the family essential for optimal health and well-being. Concern for improvement of nutritional quality of vegetables has arisen in the context of providing nutritional security to our everincreasing population because poor nutrition is linked with increased risk of obesity, diabetes, and heart disease as well as broader impacts including higher health care costs and decreased productivity.
More than 1.0 billion people globally are hungry due to food insecurity problem and about 3.0 billion people are malnourished due to poor nutrition causing mainly micronutrient deficiency.

Vegetable crops are highly susceptible to biotic stresses incited by different diseasecausing micro-organisms (fungi, bacteria, phytoplasma, virus), insect pests, nematodes, arachnids and weeds. In contrast to abiotic stresses caused by the environmental factors such as drought, heat, soil salinity, alkalinity, etc., biotic stress-causing agents directly deprive their host of its nutrients leading to reduced plant vigour and, in extreme cases, death of the host plant. In vegetable crops, different biotic stresses are the major cause of pre- and post-harvest losses.
Indiscriminate use of chemicals for the control of diseases, insect pests and nematodes has several disadvantages particularly, increasing cost involved in chemical control, residual toxicity of the chemicals (fungicides, antibiotics, insecticides) in food chain and development of resistance against pathogens and insect pests to different chemicals. Management of diseases and insect pests involve the use of resistant varieties and integration of cultural and chemical control measures.

Basic concepts of plant stress, acclimation and adaptation
Energy is the absolute requirement for the maintenance of structural organization over the lifetime of the organism. Maintenance of such complex structural organization over time requires a constant flow of energy through all biological organisms, which provides the dynamic driving force for the performance of important maintenance processes (the processes which are essential for an organism to remain alive and continue as the species) such as respiration, assimilation, nutrition, cellular biosyntheses and transport to maintain its characteristic structure and organization as well as the capacity to replicate and grow. Maintenance of such steady-state results in a meta-stable condition called homeostasis. Thus, “Homeostasis” is defined as a selfregulating process by which a living organism can maintain internal stability while adjusting to changing external conditions. It is the state of balance among all the living systems needed for the organism to survive and function properly.
Plant stress
Any change in the surrounding environment may disrupt homeostasis. Environmental modulation of homeostasis may be defined as biological stress. Thus, plant stress implies some adverse effect on the physiology of a plant induced upon a sudden transition from some optimal environmental condition where homeostasis is maintained to some suboptimal condition which disrupts this initial homeostatic state.

High temperature stress
Abiotic stresses either individually or in combination cause morphological, physiological, biochemical and molecular changes that adversely affect plant growth and ultimately yield. The major forms of abiotic stress plants are exposed to in nature are heat, drought, cold and salinity. Of these abiotic stresses, heat stress has an independent mode of action on the physiology and metabolism of plant cells. High temperatures above optimal have generally damaging effects on plant development which has led to the prediction that Global warming have a negative effect on plant growth. High temperature regimes may cause severe yield reduction leading to even famine. High temperature stress has wide range of effects on plant in terms of physiology, biochemistry and gene regulation pathways. The susceptibility to high temperatures in plants varies with the stage of plant development and genotype.
Mechanisms of heat tolerance
Heat tolerance is generally defined as the ability of the plant to grow and produce economic yield under high temperature conditions. Several plant physiological parameters and mechanisms that contribute to heat tolerance in the field include:

Concept of Ideotype breeding
In the breeding programme, elite crop varieties are developed through combination of relatively low-frequency alleles which are of known agronomic / horticultural importance (Lyu et al., 2013). During breeding programme, these elite varieties are developed targeting different main objectives, such as yield, product quality, resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses and agronomic suitability.
A crop ideotype is defined as an idealised structural model, combining both morphological and physiological traits, with the potential to maximise yield and quality within a defined environment (Donald, 1968). Ideotype generally include factors that increase the survivability of the plant such as drought resistance, resource use efficiency, root architecture and disease resistance (Arraiano et al., 2006; Rezzouk et al., 2022). Definition of “Ideotype” may be broadened through combination of morphological and physiological traits (or their genetic bases) conferring to satisfying adaptation of a crop to a particular biophysical environment, crop management and end use.

Introduction
Improved varieties, hybrids and quality seeds are considered as the basic and key inputs for the development of agriculture and horticulture. High quality seed production has been the major concern in the Indian sub-continent till 1960s. Before that, India was mostly dependent on USA for food grain. After 1960, Government of India established State Agricultural Universities in different states following “Land grant model” of USA, different ICAR Research institutes and All India Coordinated Crop Research Projects in a systematic manner to give the boost to develop large number of improved varieties with assured seed quality in all major agricultural and horticultural crops. The ultimate intention was to introduce the newly developed high yielding varieties for broad spectrum cultivation in the area of their adoption.
Importance of variety and system of its release
There are several ways and means to increase the crop production and productivity, however using genetically pure and high-quality seed is first and prime objective in agriculture/ horticulture. Govt. of India acknowledged seed as an essential commodity under essential commodities Act, 1955.

Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)
There are two types of properties viz., i) Tangible, physical or material property and ii) Intangible or intellectual property. Intellectual property (IP) pertains to any original creation of the human intellect such as artistic, literary, technical or scientific creation. The tangible or physical properties are protected by the laws of land. In contrast, intellectual property is an idea, a formula, an invention, a design, a variety, etc. which= may give rise to a useful product. For obvious reasons the inventors would like to be rewarded and their inventions be protected from imitation. Such a right of an inventor to obtain economic benefit and protection of the invention from imitation is known as Intellectual Property Right (IPR). Thus, Intellectual property rights (IPR) refers to the legal rights given to the inventor or creator to protect his invention or creation for a certain period of time (Singh, 2008).
Why Intellectual Property needs to be protected?
Intellectual property rights (IPR) encourage innovation and protect the rights of the inventors in legalized form. It is an inevitable tool in today’s globalized economy. The invention of such things would require intellectual capacity, innovativeness and creative ability of the concerned person(s).

Old and Modern biotechnology
Agriculture has evolved since the dawn of human civilization, first as a means to guarantee food supply and then, as a source of family income and improved profitability. Domestication of plants and animals that were found in the wild combined with gradual, long-term changes in their quality and quantity were the first signs of what is now collectively termed “Agriculture”. At that time, agriculture replaced the former nomadic habit of food collection for immediate consumption. Domestication of plants and animals, followed by food storage, coincided most probably unintentionally, with the growth of microorganisms. Thus, was born the classical food fermentation, the earliest known application of biotechnology, focusing on the use of microorganisms to produce food products.
Gradual improvements in agricultural techniques, domestication of additional plant and species from the wild, step-by-step selection of better performing and more adapted genotypes, along with intuitive breeding continued at a slow pace. Mendel’s discoveries and laws revolutionized genetics, and led at the beginning of the 20th century, to planned and controlled breeding experiments. Breeding or the “old biotechnology” was harnessed as a most successful tool, resulting in better crops and farm animals, and “Green Revolution” of the 1960s was achieved. Many achievements are still being successfully implemented since then.

Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
Tomato was classified under Lycopersicon for several years although, initially Linnaeus (1753) classified it in the genus Solanum. Recently, molecular studies provided new data on the relationships of tomato-potato and based on these results, tomato has been again assigned to the genus Solanum. Solanum section Lycopersicon includes the cultivated tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and its wild relatives, Solanum lycopersicum being the only domesticated species. The wild cherry tomato, Solanum lycopersicum var cerasiforme, the ancestor of the modern cultivated tomato has been originated in Peru-Ecuador-Bolivia region of the Andes. The Veracruz-Puebla region of Mexico is the centre of domestication of the cultivated tomato. From Mexico, tomato was taken to Italy, Spain, Portugal and other European countries, Africa and Middle East by the explorers in the 16th century. It was taken to Philippines after its discovery by Magellan in 1521, and from there it was taken to other Asian countries. Tomatoes did not have an easy passage even in Europe. The fruit got tagged as the “poison apple” in Britain, France, Spain and other European countries. Tomato moved to the USA from northern Europe around 1781 where it was first grown by Thomas Jefferson in Virginia.

Brinjal is the fifth most economically important Solanaceous crop after potato, tomato, chilli, and tobacco. Apart from the well-known brinjal species (Solanum melongena L.), two other under-utilized species, the scarlet eggplant (S. aethiopicum L.) and the gboma eggplant S. macrocarpon are also cultivated. Brinjal, also known as aubergine or eggplant, under the family Solanaceae (Chromosome No.: 2n = 2x =24) is one of th important vegetables of the tropical countries particularly India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, China, Japan, Indonesia, Thiland, Malaysia and the Philippines. Brinjal is the most common, popular and principal vegetable crop grown widely in India for its various shape, size and colour of fruits. Brinjals are rich sources of potential antioxidants: anthocyanin and phenolic compounds.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
Brinjal (Solanum melongena) is believed to have been originated in Indo-Burma region and perhaps China is the secondary centre of origin of this crop. Various data indicate, that from the several species that evolved in Africa, one (S. insanum), gave rise to a distinct species which spread to South-East Asia as the wild ancestor of S. melongena (Lester 1998; Ranil et al., 2017). This wild progenitor of the cultivated species has wide distribution in at least 10 habitats in India which amply suggests India being the centre of origin of brinjal.

Chilli or hot pepper, the Capsicum species (principally Capsicum annuum) under the family Solanaceae (Chromosome No. 2n =2x =24) is a tropical vegetable-cum spice crop commonly used throughout the world as spice for its pungency and red colour of ripe dried fruits and also for its green fruits for pungency and flavour.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
It is generally accepted that the Capsicum genus belonging to the family Solanaceae was originated in Bolivia which consists of 25–30 species. Five of these Capsicum species viz., C. annuum, C. baccatum, C. chinense, C. frutescens, and C. pubescens were domesticated. The largest group of varieties is found under C. annuum which is grown worldwide. Both hot pepper and sweet pepper belonging to the same species Capsicum annuum originated from the wild and weedy Capsicum annuum var. minimum distributed from the southern United States to the northern South America. The primary centre of origin of chilli is in southern and central America and secondar centre in Guatemala.

Sweet pepper or bell pepper, a cultivar group of the species Capsicum annuum under the family Solanaceae (Chromosome No. 2n =2x =24) is grown worldwide as green vegetable for its thick and fleshy fruits having delicate taste, pleasant flavour and colour. Sweet pepper requires slightly cooler climate than hot chillies. The fruits are generally non-pungent hence, it is commonly known as sweet pepper. It is also popular as bell pepper because of blocky fruit shape. China is the largest producer of sweet pepper in the world.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
Hot chillies and sweet pepper have originated from the wild and weedy species Capsicum annuum var. minimum whose domestication occurred in Mexico and distributed from the southern United states to northern south America. Domestication, cultivation and human selection brought about changes in fruit size and shape and fruit position from erect to pendant. It also resulted in more self-pollinating character due to inserted stigma unlike the exserted stigma in the wild types.

Potato, Solanum tuberosum L. under the family Solanaceae (Chromosome No. 2n = 4x = 48) is the world’s most important vegetable crop and the fourth most important food crop after rice, wheat and maize. They contain a wealth of health benefits that make them essential as a staple dietary item for much of the world’s population. It is valuable both as a fresh product and as a processed product, and the current trend is for rapid growth in processed forms, mainly chips and French fries. It is now grown in nearly 150 countries. It is extensively cultivated in China, Russia, Ukarine, Poland, Ireland, Great Britain, Germany, Netherlands, France, Spain, South America, India and USA.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
Potato is a native of tropical South American region where it grows wild in nature and presents the widest diversity of forms like, tuber shape, size, colour, taste, etc. Cultivated diploid potatoes are believed to have originated in the high plateau region of Peru and Bolivia in South America, more specifically the Lake Titicaca basin in the Peru-Bolivian region (Simmonds, 1976).

Sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas under the family Convolvulaceae (Chromosome No. 2n = 6x = 90) is an important tuber crop grown mostly in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Latin America, the Pacific islands, Papua New Guinea and Africa. India and China are the leading sweet potato growing countries in the world. In India, it is largely grown in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Its large, swollen, starchy, sweet-tasting, adventitious roots are used as tuberous vegetable. Orange-fleshed sweet potato, in particular, with high β carotene content has become a prominent example of the effectiveness of biofortified staple crops to combat vitamin A deficiency. Sweet potatoes are rich in dietary fibers and are also known for improving gut health and digestion. It also contains a high amount of phytosterol that has a protective effect on the digestive system. Sometimes, tender leaves and shoots are consumed as a green leafy vegetable. Sweet potato tubers are used in agro-industry for the preparation of starch, alcohol and animal feed.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
Sweet potato has probably been originated between the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico and the mouth of the Orinoco River in Venezuela.

Cauliflower
Cauliflower, Brassica oleracea L var. botrytis under the family Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) having chromosome No. 2n = 2x =18 is the most popular vegetable among the cole crops, particularly in Asia. It is grown in all continents of the world,= of which Asia is the leading one followed by Europe and covers small acerages in North America, South America, Africa, Australia and New Zealand. India and China together have about 60 % of total cauliflower area of the world. Cauliflower is used in different curry and fry preparations with potato, garden pea, sweet pepper and other vegetables. It contains high quality proteins and good in stability of vitamin C after
cooking. Frozen products are also prepared from cauliflower. It is rich in minerals such as potassium, sodium, iron, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, etc.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
The cole crops have originated from the wild diploid species Brassica oleracea var. sylvestris mainly by mutation, human selection and adaptation. This wild species, a leafy kale-like plant which occurs in the northern shore of the Mediterranean Sea an along the lime cliffs in north-eastern England and North Sea is the progenitor of th cultivated kale and leafy non-heading cabbage. Probably kale was the first cole crop to have selected and adapted by man. From this leafy kale-like plant (Brassica oleracea var. sylvestris), other cole crops viz., kale, collard, broccoli, cauliflower and cabbage have been descended.

Onion, Allium cepa under the family Alliaceae (Amarylidaceae) having chromosome No. = 2n × 2x = 16 is an important vegetable cum spice crop grown in almost all parts of the world. The four major onion growing countries in the world are China, India, USA and Turkey. Other important onion growing countries are Iran, Italy, Egypt, The Netherlands, Russia, Thailand, Indonesia, Korea, Japan and Brazil. Onions are the fundamental ingredient in many dishes of the Asian countries. In India, important onion growing states are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. In India, onions are cooked for the preparation of stews, curries and as a base for rice pilafs or pilau or used fresh as salads. Onions are widely used in American cuisine, from burgers and sandwiches to soups and stews. Fried onion rings are a popular side dish. Onions are healthy whether consumed as raw or cooked however, raw onions have higher levels of organic sulfur compounds that provide many health benefits.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
The geographic origin of the onion is uncertain because the wild onion is extinct andancient records of using onions span western and eastern Asia. However, it is presumed that domestication of onion likely took place in Southwest or Central Asia comprising Iran, Afganistan, western Pakistan Tadzhikistan and Uzbekistan. Its secondary centre of origin is in the Mediterranean region. Its cultivation has spread in Western Asia from Palestine to India. It entered northern Europe through Italy and north Africa during 500 AD. It was introduced in the USA by the early Spanish explorers around 1625 AD.

Carrot, Daucus carota L. under the family Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) having chromosome numbers 2n = 2x = 18 is a root vegetable, grown in spring, summer and autumn in temperate regions and during winter in tropical and sub-tropical regions all over the world. It is important root crop of the European countries, USA, China, Japan, Korea and India. It is grown in almost all parts of India, both in plains and hills. Most of the carrots are typically orange in colour, though purple, black, red, white and yellow cultivars are also available. It is consumed fresh as salad or cooked as vegetable. It is also used for fresh juice, pickles and for the preparation of sweets. Leaves are used as fodder. Essential oil from the seeds is used for flavouring liquors and foods. It contains highest amount of β carotene (pro-vitamin A) among the common vegetables. It is also a good source of vitamin K, and vitamin B6.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
Carrot probably originated in Afghanistanin, the region where the Himalaya and Hindukush mountains are confluent. The secondary centres of diversity are probably Ehiopia and north America. Its domestication occurred in Afganistan and adjacent regions of Russia, Iran (previously called Persia), India, Pakistan and Anatolia (Van der Vossen and Sambas, 1993). From its centre of origin in Afghanistan, it was taken by the Arabs to eastern Mediterranean and Spain in 12th century. It was introduced in China in 13th or 14th century, in England during 15th century, in Japan in early 17th century and in the USA in 1620 AD.

Radish, Raphanus sativus under the family Brassicaceae (Crucifereae) having chromosome No. 2n = 2x =18 is grown mainly for fleshy taproot roots in both tropical and temperate regions throughout the world. Radish is cultivated widely in China, Japan, Korea, India, Europe and USA. It is grown throughout India and particularly in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Assam and Gujarat. Radish is mostly eaten raw as a crunchy salad or cooked as a vegetable. Leaves are sometimes eaten as cooked leafy vegetable. Immature pods of rat-tail radish, Raphanus sativus var. caudatus are also consumed as vegetable. Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
Radish, one of the ancient root vegetables was domesticated in Asia prior to Roman times. Varieties of radish are now broadly distributed around the world, but almost no archeological records are available to help determine their early history and domestication. However, different research works have tentatively located the origin of Raphanus sativus in Southeast Asia, as this is the only region where truly wild forms have been discovered. This radish might be Oriental or Asiatic radish. India, Central China, and Central Asia appear to have been the secondary centers where different forms were developed. However, according to other hypothesis, eastern Mediterranean region, China and middle Asia are considered to be the origin of radish where wild radish still exists.

Garden pea, Pisum sativum var. hortense under the family Fabaceae (Leguminosae) having chromosome No. 2n = 2x = 14 is an all-time favourite vegetable in the world. As a cool season crop, it is extensively grown in early spring season in temperate zone and winter season in the tropics and subtropics. The immature/green peas are used as fresh vegetable as well as frozen or canned. Green peas are quite nutritious and contain high amount of protein and a fair amount of vitamin C, zinc, fibre and antioxidants. Diet containing green pea may improve the functionality of the gut.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
Discovery of the carbonized pea seed remains indicated that the smooth-seeded field pea was cultivated in the Near East and Europe as early as 7000 B. C. The earliest archaeological finds of peas come from Neolithic Syria, Turkey and Jordan. In Egypt, evidence of peas dates from ca. 4800–4400 BC. The wild pea was restricted to the Mediterranean basin and the Near East. Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tazikistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Afghanistan), Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and the Mediterranean basin are the primary centres of origin of pea with the near-east (Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordon) as the secondary centre of origin. In another view, Pisum is
considered to have been originated in Ethiopia and from where it spread during prehistoric times to Mediterranean region, Central Europe, the Near East and subsequently to rest of the world. The wild progenitor of Pisum sativum is unknown.