eChapters

14.1. Slope
It is a crucial topographic factor that affects water drainage, erosion and accessibility of agricultural machinery. Steep slopes increase the risk of soil erosion, and water run-off requiring erosion control measures such as contour ploughing or terracing. Slope also affects the availability of sunlight, as steeper slopes may cast shadows and influence microclimates within a field.
14.2. Altitude / Elevation
Elevation is the vertical distance of a point or location above a reference point, often mean sea level. It influences temperature, atmospheric pressure, and the types of crops that can be grown in an area. Higher altitudes generally experience cooler temperatures, which may limit the choice of crops that can thrive. Elevation affects the length of the growing season and influences the choice of appropriate crop varieties. In summary, elevation is an absolute measure of the vertical distance above a reference point (such as MSL), while it is a relative measure that describes the variation in elevation within a specific area or region. Elevation provides information about the height of a point, whereas it provides insights into the topographic features and slopes of a given agricultural landscape. Both elevation and relief are important considerations in agriculture as they influence factors such as water drainage, temperature gradients, and suitability for specific crops.
14.3. Aspect
Aspect refers to orientation of the slope (north, south, east or west). It affects the distribution of sun light; wind patterns and temperature gradients in a field. In the northern hemisphere, the north side of slope is often shaded while the southern side receives more solar radiation and heat, creating warmer microclimates and potentially influencing the choice of crops or planting strategies. Aspect can also impact the risk of frost or cold air drainage in certain regions. Whereas, in the southern hemisphere, the south side slopes get shaded and north facing slopes receive more solar radiation.
14.4. Relief
Relief refers to the variation in altitude between different points. It is a relative measure on changes in altitude across a particular landscape or agricultural area. The valley slopes are preferred sites for agriculture in mountain regions due to several reasons:
• The valley slopes offer relatively flatter terrain, making it easier for farming activities such as cultivation, irrigation and mechanization.
• The valleys tend to have better access to water resources such as rivers or streams which can be used for irrigation water.
• The valley slopes provide good sun exposure and protection from strong winds creating favourable microclimates for crop growth
• The natural drainage patterns of valleys help preventing water logging and ensure better water management.

Abstract

The present experiment was conducted to study the influence of weather parameters on the population dynamics of insect pests of rice during 2009-10 at ICAR-RC for NEH Region, Mizoram Centre, Kolasib, Mizoram. The result of the study indicated that, the mean populations of peak abundance of major insect pests rice crops during August were stem borer, flea beetle and gundhi bug. The Correlation studies showed that stem borer population a significant positively correlation was observed with maximum and minimum relative humidity. Nevertheless non significant negative correlation was obtained with maximum and minimum temperature. The finding of the present study indicated a positive non significant correlation with maximum relative humidity, maximum and minimum temperature where as negative insignificant correlation with rainfall and minimum relative humidity with flea beetle population. The highest minimum temperature showed a positive significant correlation with the Monolepta.

The ozone layer is a region in the Earth’s stratosphere where a certain amount of incoming solar radiation is absorbed. Over the last twenty years or so a series of man-made threats to it have been reported and each has been treated  with more gravity than the last. Now a-days such threats feature  regularly on the agendas of international conferences.

Ozone, Positive and Negative : Ozone, or trimolecular oxygen (O3) can be advantageous or exert harmful influence on human health, as well as that of other organisms. It is all depends on whether it is present in the troposphere or stratosphere (Fig. 8.1). In the stratosphere, ozone is a beneficial serving as a shield in screening out most of the damaging portions of ultraviolet radiation which have wavelengths between 290 and 320 nanometers. In the troposphere, ozone is a negative as it appears as a component of smog with a number of deleterious effects, as will be discussed below.

Abstract

As such in search of alternative to chemical insecticides against insect pest of rice resulted in identifying white muscardine fungus, Beauveria bassiana an entomopathogen out of several entomogenous fungi prevalent in rice ecosystem as the potential mycoinsecticides. The fungus has 78-87% virulence against rice hispa with  LC 50 value of 90.16. Under field situations it is required that the effectiveness of the bioagents are enhanced by combining them with compatible pesticides. A sublethal dose of a pesticide  would make the insect physiologically weak which makes it much more susceptible to the attack of the entomogenous organisms. In view of this, compatibility test was conducted with 14 different commonly applied insecticides at two different doses i.e., recommended and half of the recommended dose. In small scale field trial chloropyriphos at half of the recommended dose along with B. bassiana was the best treatment in controlling the pest along with increased yield of the crop consecutively for two years.

ABSTRACT

An in vitro evaluation was carried out to find out the efficiency of bacterial and fungal antagonists in checking the growth of pathogens of Kacholam. Out of the two methods tried to find out the effectiveness of Pseudomonas fluorescens against the two isolates of Ralstonia solanacearum, cross streaking produced lysis at the juncture and point inoculation produced clear inhibition zones. Among the two fungal antagonists tested Trichoderma viride was more efficient than Aspergillus niger because of its faster growth over the pathogen. However, both the antagonists showed complete overgrowth and dense sporulation on the area where the pathogen was streaked. To find out the efficacy of Pseudomonas fluorescens against leaf spot pathogens like Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and C. capsici, streaking on both sides yielded more than 50 per cent reduction in growth of both the fungal pathogens. The fungal antagonist T. viride showed a faster growth over pathogens than A. niger eventhough both recorded an antagonism index of 1500. Dense sporulation was seen over the pathogens in case of T. viride. The ability of fungal antagonists to produce volatiles and their effect on fungal pathogens were also assessed. It was noticed that the volatiles produced by T. viride was more effective than that of A. niger. Even though the extent of inhibition was less compared to direct action, this could also be one of the mechanisms of action of both the antagonists. The study revealed that all the three antagonists were effective against both bacterial and fungal pathogens and they could be utilized under field conditions.

Abstract

Lentil is an important pulse crop and play very important role in the supply of the protein to under nourished vegetarian population of the country. Fusarium wilt of lentil caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lentis is one of the wide spread and destructive diseases in India under rice-based cropping system. Use of synthetic fungicides has led to the emergence of several problems like environment pollution, residual effect in grains and killing of non-target organism(s). Hence, for minimizing the losses caused by Fusarium wilt, four plant extracts such as Garlic, Neem, Eucalyptus, Tulsi and three antagonistic bio-agents viz. Trichoderma viride, Trichoderma harzianum and Pseudomonas fluorescence were evaluated in vitro. The results clearly showed that all plant extracts were more or less inhibitory to mycelial growth of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lentis. The effectiveness of extracts increased with increase of their concentration and maximum growth inhibition was obtained in Eucalyptus followed by Garlic and Tulsi. While minimum per cent inhibition was recorded in Neem. Among bio-agents, T. viride showed maximum growth inhibition of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lentis followed by T. harzianum at both 4 and 7 days incubation period.

Abstract

Microbial inoculants are low cost inputs with high benefits in agriculture. Solid carrier based (peat or lignite) inoculants are used in most tropical countries. The carrier based inoculants have short shelf life, are liable to have high contaminants and have shown inconsistent field performance. In recent years, special liquid formulations containing not only the desired microorganisms and their nutrients but also added cell protectants or chemicals that promote formation of resting spores or cysts have been developed. The liquid formulations have longer shelf-life (12 months at room temperature) and are also more tolerant to adverse conditions encountered in storage. Liquid Rhizobium biofertilizers enhanced the soybean crop yields in the United States of America, Brazil, Europe and Asia over carrier based inoculants.

ABSTRACT

The main function of extension is to bring a desirable change in human behavior. The extension workers, thus are essentially educators and their most important job is to communicate useful and practical research findings to the farmers in such a way that they understand, accept and adopt. In order to achieve this objective, the extension agencies are disseminating new technologies through different means including mass media like radio, T. V, and print media. Considering the wide areas of coverage, exposure and frequent use by people, the mass media such as television, newspaper and radio play an important role in the transfer of technology. Mass media are increasingly becoming a veritable instrument and tool for transforming agriculture. Hence, mass media play a vital role in agricultural extension. There is a gap between the agricultural researchers and the farmers. A lot of findings from the research institutions and laboratories are not used by the farmers, either because of the information did not reach them, or the received information was not implemented by them. To overcome this problem, mass media play a vital role in diffusing scientific knowledge among the mass. This is used to link researchers and extension workers and collecting the feedback from farming communities. Further, agricultural technology information acquired by farmers through mass media. Generally, the agricultural technology information includes techniques of applying fertilizer, insecticides and fungicides to crops, improved methods of cultivation and conservation techniques of planting, maintenance, harvesting and storage of crops. There are also new technologies of animal husbandry as well as processing and marketing various agricultural products. Hence, mass media is the most effective means of reaching people with new ideas and persuading them to utilize these innovations. The appropriate use can create knowledge and catalyze behavioral change among farming communities for better family farming.

Abstract

The major losses of banana at present by Panama wilt disease pathogen of banana and its management is very typical because it is caused by a soil-borne pathogen (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. c u b e n s e ). The micronutrients are used to manage the disease as well as it provides the healthiness of plant and increases the fertility of the soil that’s why the plant is free from the disease or less infected. An experiment of micronutrients was conducted in the laboratory of plant pathology BAU, Sabour for Invitro evaluation of the micronutrients viz. Zinc Sulfate, Ferrous Sulfate, Ammonium Sulfate, Copper Sulfate, Calcium Nitrate, Borax and Potassium Chloride against Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense causing Panama wilt of banana. The results of the experiment revealed that among the micronutrients used, Borax @ 500 and 750 ppm completely inhibited the mycelial growth of FOC followed by Zinc Sulfate (45.7, 42.6, 39.2 and 18.5 mm at 100, 250, 500 and 750 ppm respectively). The incorporation of borax in the solid medium at higher concentrations viz., 500 and 750 ppm is very effective for the management of Panama wilt disease of banana. This approach leads to maintain our ecosystem sustainability for a longer time and manage the disease.

Abstract

European red mite is a  serious pest of apple in Himachal Pradesh. Recent survey has shown that 80 per cent apple orchards are infested with this pest. As a result of continuous feeding fruit remained undersized, poor coloured and sour in taste. New acaricides fenazaquin (0.001%) and propergite (0.057%) proved highly effective Standard acaricides dicofol ( 0.037%) and insecticide endosulfan (0.07%) remained effective upto 15 days only.

Abstract

Pigeon pea is an important pulse crop of India and its production is greatly affected by wilt disease. Pigeon pea wilt is a very destructive soil borne disease caused by Fusarium udum. In present research work plant extracts (Garlic, Neem, Tulsi), bio-agents (Trichoderma viride and Pseudomonas fluorescens) and fungicides (Vitavax, Bavistin and Thiram + Carbendazim) were tested against Fusarium udum. Among them fungicides were found most effective in inhibiting mycelial growth of Fusarium udum recorded 100% inhibition followed by garlic bulb extract (52.12 to 56.33%). Among bioagents, Pseudomonas fluorescens inhibit the growth up to (46.00 to 51.79%) followed by T. viride (44.32 to 48.79%) amongst all treatments except untreated.

Keywords: Pigeon pea, Fusarium udum, bio-agent, fungicide

Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp.) is one of the major pulse crops grown in the tropics and subtropics belonging to family Leguminaceae. It has wide adaptability and low input requirements mostly grown in kharif season.

ABSTRACT

Phytophthora rot is the most destructive disease of black pepper nursery inflicting heavy crop losses. Considering the seriousness of the disease, the present study was undertaken to isolate and select the efficient antagonists from pepper nurseries raised in Government farms at Chelakkara, Pazhayannur, Mannuthy and Pananchery of Thrissur district. A quantitative estimation of the rhizosphere microflora from different nurseries revealed more abundance of soil bacteria followed by fungi and actinomycetes. Based on cultural characters of the rhizosphere microflora, 22 fungi, 20 bacteria and five actinomycetes were selected for further studies. Antagonistic action of soil microflora against Phytophthora capsici was studied by dual culture method in comparison with that of standard culture of T. harzianum. The study revealed that all fungal isolates and five bacterial isolates were antagonistic towards the pathogen with varying degrees. Among the fungal isolates, 13 isolates including T.harzianum recorded cent per cent inhibition of P.capsici. From among the fungal isolates that showed antagonistic reaction in dual culture, further selection of efficient ones was carried out based on the antagonistic index (AI). The isolate 22 F₂ (Trichoderma sp.) showed the maximum AI of 3000 followed by isolate 34 F₂ (Trichoderma sp.) and T. harzianum with an AI of 1500 each. The cultural and morphological characters of the efficient native isolates (22 F₂ and 34 F) were studied and were identified as Trichoderma longibrachiatum Rifai aggr. and Trichoderma viride Pers. ex S.F. Gray aggr. The three antagonists were found parasitic on P.capsici as evidenced by excessive coiling, penetration and disintegration of the hyphae and thereby these Trichoderma spp. used in the study is found to have effective parasitic effect on the pathogen in addition to some degree of antibiosis and these fungi could be utilised for the management of Phytophthora rot in black pepper nursery.

ABSTRACT

Phytophthora pod rot (PPR) incited by Phytophthora palmivora is the most serious disease of cocoa, inflicting heavy crop losses. Since, antagonistic microbes are useful in ecofriendly management of plant diseases, the present study was undertaken to harness the potential of antagonistic epiphytic microflora isolated from cocoa pods for the management of PPR of cocoa. A quantitative estimation of the epiphytic microflora from pods collected from different locations of cocoa gardens of Thrissur district revealed more abundance of bacteria followed by fungi, actinomycetes and fluorescent pseudomonads. The in vitro antagonistic effect of 16 isolates of fungi, 22 isolates of bacteria, five isolates of actinomycetes and two isolates of fluorescent pseudomonads from pod surface against P. palmivora was carried out in comparison with standard cultures of Trichoderma harzianum and Pseudomonas fluorescens. The study revealed that all the epiphytic fungal and bacterial isolates including standard cultures of T. harzianum and P. fluorescens were antagonistic to P. palmivora in varying degrees. Based on the in vitro screening seven promising epiphytic fungal isolates and five bacterial isolates along with standard cultures of T. harzianum and P. fluorescens were evaluated for their efficiency in reducing the infection by P. palmivora on detached pods. The pathogen was inoculated on the pods one hour after application of antagonists. Observations taken 10 days after inoculation of the pathogen revealed that one isolate of T. viride and two isolates of P. fluorescens obtained from pod surface exerted more than 40 per cent efficiency over control in reducing the infection. The standard cultures of fungal and bacterial antagonists recorded 33-35 per cent efficiency. Hence, these efficient epiphytic and standard cultures could be utilized for the management of PPR of cocoa.

Irrigation Efficiency
Irrigation water is an expansive input and has to be used very efficiently. The main losses that occur during irrigation of fields as conveyance, run off, seepage and deep percolation; Irrigation efficiency can be increased by reducing these losses. Uneven spreading and inadequate filling of root zone are the other causes for low irrigation efficiency. Irrigation efficiency at the field level can be increased by selecting suitable method of irrigation, adequate land preparation and engaging an efficient irrigator. At the project level, it can be increased by proper conveyance and distribution system. Irrigation efficiency is the ratio usually expressed as percent of the volume of irrigation water transpired by plants, plus that evaporate from the soil, plus that necessary to regulate the salt concentration in the soil solution and that used by plants in building plant tissue to total volume of water diverted, stored or pumped for irrigation.
Wt+Ws-RsEi=×100Wi
Where,
Ei = Irrigation efficiency (percent)
Wt = the volume of irrigation water / unit area of land transpired by plants, evaporation from the soil during the crop period.
Ws = the volume of irrigation water per unit area of land to regulate the salt Content of soil solution.

The objective of any cropping system is efficient utilisation of all resources such as land, water and solar radiation, maintaining stability in production and obtaining higher net returns. The efficiency is measured by the quantity of produce obtained per unit resource used in a given time.

Abstract

The groundwater targeting in hard rock aquifer systems is complex, because of the heterogeneity of the aquifer systems. The ground water mobility and stability in such aquifer systems varies because of the lithology, folded structures, fracture density, geomorphology, slope etc., These occur in various permutations and combinations and control the overall water holding and conducting capacity in different parts of the aquifer systems. Hence, one needs to analyse all the data so as to understand and bring out precise spatial models on the groundwater probability in hard rock aquifer systems. In the present study, the authors have carried out GIS based appraisals to understand the relation between the lithology and groundwater movement in hard rock aquifer systems of parts of Central Tamil Nadu covering 1300 sq.km. In the said study, GIS images were generated on the maxima zones of various aquifer parameters such as water level, width of aquifer depletion, transmissivity, permeability, specific capacity, storage co-efficient, optimum yield and recovery rate. These were overlaid with the lithology GIS image. Such an analysis has shown that, in general, the fissile hornblende biotite gneiss appears to have some control over the groundwater systems.

11.1 Performance of Farm Irrigation Systems

The performance of farm irrigation systems is determined by the efficiency with which water is delivered to the field and utilized to the fullest amount possible with minimum losses due to seepage and percolation, runoff, evaporation and other operational losses. The efficiency of the irrigation system will increase if the conveyance losses, application losses and other losses are reduced to a great extent.

11.1.1 Overall Efficiency

The overall efficiency of a farm irrigation system is defined as the percent of water applied to the farm that is used for irrigation on the farm. Irrigation efficiency otherwise called as overall system efficiency is defined.

About 60 per cent of total arable land (142 million ha) in India is rain-fed, characterized by low productivity, low income, low employment with high incidence of poverty and a bulk of fragile and marginal land. Watershed development program is, therefore, considered as an effective tool for addressing many of these problems and recognized as a potential engine for agricultural growth and development in fragile and marginal rain-fed areas. The Government of India has accorded high priority to the holistic and sustainable development of rain-fed areas through the integrated watershed development program since the 7th Five Year Plan (1985-90) and since then a number of watershed programs have been specifically launched in the rain-fed areas with the sole objective to improve the livelihood of poor rural households in a sustainable manner.

Water is indispensable for human, animal and plant life. It is a major component of all organisms some of which contain more than 90% of water. Water is a constituent of protoplasm. It maintains turgidity of cells which is essential for stomatal opening, expansion of cells and for different physiological processes. Water is also required for translocation of nutrients and dissipation of heat.

16.1 Irrigation

Irrigation is generally defined as the artificial application of water to soil for the purpose of supplying the moisture essential for plant growth.

However, a broader and more inclusive definition of the term irrigation is the application of water to the soil for any number of the following six purposes —

1. To add water to soil to supply the moisture essential for plant growth.
2. To provide crop insurance against short duration drought.
3. To cool the soil and atmosphere, thereby making more favourable environment for crop growth.
4. To wash out or dilute salts in the soil.

The conservation of soil and water is very essential for sustainable production, environment preservation and balanced ecosystem. Fifty percent of total geographical area (329 m ha) of our country needs soil and water conservation measures. About 5334 million tonnes of soil is lost annually along with 10 million tonnes of fertilizer and other essential nutrients and organic carbon. Loss of nutrients is almost equal to their total production in India. In India about 70% of the cultivated area falls under the category of dryland conservation measures for soil and water and efficient utilization of these resources is needed in these areas. The fact that rainfed agriculture supports 44% of India’s human population and contributes 90 percent of coarse cereals and pulses, 80 percent of oil seeds and 65 percent of cotton and growing realization that further gains in productivity of crops and live stock will emanate from rainfed regions, leave no room for complacency in this regard.

In these areas, rainfall frequently occurs with high intensity that produces higher runoff due to non adoption of soil and water conservation (SWC) measures and poor permeability of the soil. As a result crop grown during rainy season often suffer from moisture stress due to inadequate moisture storage in the soil profile. Secondly soil erosion problems such as sheet, rill and even gully erosion are common in the region.

It has been reported that the black soils of peninsular region of India, under cultivated fallow gives runoff of about 23.4 percent of rainfall and results in a soil loss of 8.94 t ha^-1 at 1.0 percent slope (Verma et al., 1990). They further reported that the rate of siltation reduced by 83 percent within a span of five years due to adoption of agronomic measure of SWC. These studies clearly showed that soil erosion and runoff are the major factors causing land degradation in the region that needs appropriate SWC measures so that crop productivity could be maintained.

PGPR have shown potentiality against pests and diseases oc curring on crop plants. Wilt and collar rot diseases are caused by soilborne pathogens viz., Fusarium oxysporum fsp. lycopersici (FOL) and Sclerotium rolfsii respectively in vegetables. An attempt was made to manage the diseases with PGPR microbes and 142 PGPR strains were isolated from different vegetable crops. Among them two isolates viz., Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (BA1) and B. subtilis (BS2) were found highly effective in controlling the diseases.  Apart from the disease control, the isolates BA1 and BS2 also registered enhanced crop growth and yield in cowpea under field conditions. Species level identification of BA1 and BS2 was done through PCR amplification and sequencing of 16s rRNA. Both BA1 and BS2 clustered with Bacillus amyloliquefaciens and B. subtilis respectively.

Abstract

India is the prevalent prime producer of moringa [drumstick] with an annual production of 2.2 million tonnes of tender fruits from an area of 38,000 ha. Among the states, Andhra Pradesh leads in both area and production [15,665 ha] followed by Karnataka [10,280 ha] and Tamil Nadu [7,408 ha]. In other states, it occupies an area of 4,613 ha. Tamil Nadu is the pioneering state in so much as it has varied genotypes from diversified geographical areas, as well as introductions from Sir Lanka. Farmers found that growing moringa crops during summer season was remunerative. Thus, moringa gained a foothold as a summer vegetable. Its unique flavour and aroma became very popular. For South Indian any meal without moringa and pulses is considered incomplete. The demand for the moringa pod also increased due to increased urban settlements and migration of people to urban colonies. Based on the significance of moringa in the human diet this study might more viable with the specific objectives of to assessing the marketing strategies for promotion Periyakulam annual moringa seeds in Tamil Nadu.

Moisture deficit causing shortfalls in crop production is the characteristic feature of dryland agriculture. Other adverse factors viz., decline in soil fertility together with play of biotic stresses add to the complexities of dryland crop production. Added to the proven agronomic management to combat the problem of drought in dryland agriculture, there is the need to tailoring of suitable crop varieties which can yield reasonably well under conditions of moisture deficit (Varshney et al., 2021). In this context, the appropriate developmental rhythm along with the combination of the constellation of characters of the crop plant matching with the rainfall and the soil moisture availability patterns of the zone are the important considerations together with stability of yield (Hanson and Nelsen, 1980). This task being a complex one, the problem should be approached through multidisciplinary strategy that should buffer the genetic and breeding efforts.

10.1 Introduction

Rainwater is the main source of water for agriculture but its current use efficiency for the crop production is low ranging between 30-45%. The rising demand for water for non-agricultural uses is proportionately decreasing its share for agricultural uses. Efficient methods of water harvesting in the farm reservoirs including farm ponds and its management for subsequent uses in agriculture with improved water use technologies are vital for increasing the productivity and reducing poverty in rainfed ecosystems. It is not to be forgotten that the harvested water in the pond is a very valuable commodity. It may be used for industrial use or for irrigation in agriculture. The harvested water is also a good source to meet the water demand of domestic animals and for human beings (Fig. 10.1). The stored water of the pond can be used for fish farming, tree plantation, intensive irrigation to small area and extensive supplemental irrigation to rainfed crops. Stored water in a pond is developed resource and is, therefore, more expensive than the natural resource. Hence, there is a need to utilize it judiciously and efficiently.

Introduction

One of the most common concerns in irrigated agriculture is regarding water quality or salinity. Out of the ground water surveyed in different Indian States, as much as 84% is rated either saline or alkaline (Minhas 1996). Salinity management is very important for using saline water in irrigation safely. This requires an understanding of how salts affect soil as well as plants, of how hydrogeologic processes affect salt accumulation, and also of how cropping and irrigation activities affect soil and water salinity.

The objectives of management practices for getting optimal crop production with saline irrigation water include the prevention of salt build-up in soil which limit the productivity of soils and the control of salt balances in the soil-water system, as well as minimising the damaging effects of salinity on crop growth (Meiri and Plaut 1985). Amongst the various soil, water, and crop management options available, there is usually no single way to achieve safe use of saline water in irrigation but many different approaches and practices can be combined into satisfactory irrigation systems using saline water. The appropriate combination depends upon edaphic, hydrogeologic, climatic factors as well as social and economic condition of the farmer. Several practices interact with each other, and should be considered in an integrated manner, along with climatic and human factors. Because of the climate, the basic principles of saline water management need some adaptation, e.g. providing for a leaching requirement is not appropriate when the growing season for post-monsoon winter crops starts with a surface-leached soil profile, because it would increase the salt load. High salinities during the initial stages of growth are particularly harmful. Recommendations for effective management of irrigation water salinity depend upon local soil properties, climate, and water quality; options of crops and rotations; and irrigation and farm management capabilities

12.1 Introduction

The eggs represent very good basis that can be enriched with useful and beneficial substances and become functional food, since certain beneficial substances which layers consume in their daily diets transfer relatively easily into their products. However, enrichment of poultry meat and eggs can have adverse consequences in regard to their quality. Functional food is interesting also from the economical aspect, because it opens for poultry producers the possibility to introduce new products into their product range. Of course, main assumption is that consumers of enriched products are willing to pay premium price for these products, which is by 15-20% higher than average product price. On a global basis, eggs are one of the most recognized and accepted foods by consumers.

INTRODUCTION

EGGS : Eggs and egg products constitute an important part of family meals. The economic importance of the egg to agriculture and industry, its multiple uses in the preparation of many food products, and its excellent nutritive value have stimulated scientific scrutiny into the nature of the egg.

STRUCTURE : The chief parts of the egg are the yolk, the albumin (the white), and the shell and the shell membranes. The yolk is more complex structurally than may be thought at first glance. At the very center is a light coloured structure called the white yolk. The vitelline membrane serves as the enclosure or sac for the yolk. The strength of this membrane is important when yolks and whites needs to be separated in cookery. Two important rather twisted membraneous structures extend from opposite sides of the yolk into the white.

In order to assess the quality characteristics of eggs the book reference values were taken for comparison

EDS 76 is an infectious disease of laying hens caused by hemagglutinating adenovirus and characterized by failure to achieve production targets or by the production of thin-shelled or shell-less eggs in otherwise healthy birds.

This important disease caused loss of egg production for several years - vaccination introduced the disease and a new vaccine virtually eradicated it.

2.1 Introduction

The biochemical environment for egg production and ovulation egg fertilisation is provided by the poultry oviduct. The chickens have two ovaries and an oviduct when they are hatched, but the growth of the right ovary and oviduct stops and regresses over time. The left ovary and oviduct are still functioning and help produce eggs. The oviduct is a long tubular structure that is divided into five functionally and histomorphologically distinct segments: the infundibulum, which is the site of fertilisation, the magnum, which produces egg white components, the isthmus, which forms the egg shell membranes, the shell gland or uterus, which produces the calcified eggshell, and the vagina (oviposition or egg laying).

This chapter introduces the principles used to preserve egg quality and extend shelf life after laying. It examines deterioration mechanisms during storage, including moisture loss, carbon-dioxide loss, albumen thinning and weakening of the vitelline membrane. Refrigeration, thermostabilization, shell coating, oiling, controlled and modified atmospheres, water-glass preservation and emerging non-thermal approaches are discussed. The chapter also introduces kinetic shelf-life modelling and time–temperature concepts for predicting quality deterioration. Emphasis is placed on maintaining an unbroken cold chain and controlling temperature and humidity during storage.

6.1 Introduction

The egg production in the country has increased from 78.48 billion in 2014-15 to 114.38 billion in 2019-20. India ranks 3rd in egg production in the world. Annual growth rate of egg production was 4.99 per cent during 2014-15, there after there has been a significant improvement in the egg production with 10.19 per cent growth registered in 2019-20 over the previous year. The per capita availability of egg was 86 per annum in 2019-20. Less than a generation ago the main supply of eggs was from small backyard unit. Processors, handlers, and distributors of eggs and egg products need an understanding of egg-production practices to cope more intelligently with problems of product quality and character

5.1 Introduction

The egg production in the country has increased from 78.48 billion in 2014-15 to 114.38 billion in 2019-20. India ranks 3rd in egg production in the world. Annual growth rate of egg production was 4.99 per cent during 2014-15, there after there has been a significant improvement in the egg production with 10.19 per cent growth registered in 2019-20 over the previous year. The per capita availability of egg was 86 per annum in 2019-20. Less than a generation ago the main supply of eggs was from small backyard unit. Processors, handlers, and distributors of eggs and egg products need an understanding of egg-production practices to cope more intelligently with problems of product quality and character.

This chapter introduces the processing of shell eggs into industrial egg products. It classifies products according to egg fraction and physical state, including whole egg, albumen, yolk, liquid, frozen and dried products. Breaking and separation operations, liquid egg production, pasteurization, freezing, dehydration, spray drying and desugarization are discussed. The chapter also covers quality control, packaging and storage of processed egg products. Particular attention is given to balancing microbiological safety with functional properties during pasteurization and processing.

This chapter introduces the concepts of internal and external egg quality and explains the methods used to measure important quality attributes. It covers shell quality, shell strength, cleanliness, shape, albumen quality, yolk quality, air-cell characteristics and freshness. Classical indices such as Haugh unit, yolk index and specific gravity are discussed alongside candling and modern non-destructive instrumental techniques. The chapter also explains how egg quality changes during storage through moisture and carbon-dioxide loss and provides a scientific basis for interpreting quality measurements and applying them in commercial grading.

21.1 Introduction

The egg industry has grown quickly in the last decade as people’s eating habits have become more aware of the importance of good and nutritious diets. Eggs are now widely accepted as a good source of high-quality protein. Increased demand in consumer choice has resulted in a wide variety of egg selection available in the retail market. Eggs of high quality are needed to sustain niche markets for specialty and designer eggs–seeking consumers. Egg quality defines those characteristics of an egg that affect consumer acceptability and preference. The parameters for egg grading include shell cleanliness, strength, texture, and shape; the relative viscosity of the albumen; and the shape and firmness of the yolk.

19.1 Introduction

Quality has been defined as the properties of any given food that have an influence on the acceptance or rejection of this food by the consumer. Egg quality is a general term which refers to several aspects of both internal and external quality. Internal egg quality involves functional, aesthetic and microbiological properties of the egg yolk and albumen. The proportions of components for fresh egg are 32% yolk, 58% albumen and 10% shell. The quality of an egg is at its best when the egg is laid. There is no known method by which this quality can be improved subsequently.

This chapter introduces systematic approaches for controlling biological, chemical and physical hazards throughout the egg chain. It explains the seven principles of HACCP and their application to shell eggs and egg products. Prerequisite programmes, GMP, GHP, FSSAI regulations, international regulatory frameworks, traceability, recall management and risk communication are discussed. A worked HACCP plan for liquid egg demonstrates how hazards and critical control points can be identified and controlled. The chapter emphasizes that egg safety requires an integrated farm-to-fork approach rather than relying solely on processing-plant controls.

Reproductive Organs of Fowl and Formation of Egg

The reproductive system of a hen is a fascinating and intricate setup designed to produce one of nature’s most perfect foods-the egg. Understanding this system requires a look into its two primary components: the ovary and the oviduct.

The Ovary

The ovary is where the magic begins. A hen typically has two ovaries, but in most cases, only the left ovary develops fully and remains functional. The right ovary, although present, becomes rudimentary and non-functional. The left ovary is responsible for the formation of ova, the initial stage of the egg.

Inside the ovary of a hen are approximately 2000 visible yolk-filled ova. These ova are the potential eggs, each waiting to be developed and released. As a hen matures, these ova progress through various stages of development. The transformation from an immature pullet, which has a small, undeveloped oviduct weighing about 1.1 grams, to a mature pullet ready to lay eggs, involves significant changes. By the time a pullet lays her first egg, her oviduct has grown to weigh around 77.2 grams.

11.1 Introduction

Egg contents may be contaminated via vertical or horizontal paths. In the former, bacteria may colonise the ovaries and/or oviduct, whereas in the latter, pollutants, such as faecal matter or dust, travel through the shell and colonise the membranes and yolk. The surface of a nest-fresh egg provides minimal protection against bacterial pollutants, resulting in the dominance of Gram-positive Micrococci in the shell microflora. Nonetheless, a variety of conditions have been demonstrated to either increase the survival of bacteria in the unfriendly environment of the egg’s shell surface or to impair the egg’s antimicrobial defence mechanism in other ways.

Solanum melongena L. (2n = 2x = 24, family Solanaceae, often cross-pollinated) is known as eggplant in the United States and aubergine in France and England. It is one of the few cultivated solanaceous species originating from the Old World. It is known as brinjal in its home country, India, where it was domesticated long ago and where the greatest diversity exists. Widely grown in temperate and tropical Asian countries, eggplant has been also a common crop in the Middle East and around the Mediterranean basin and is now cultivated worldwide. Although an Old World taxon, S. melongena unexpectedly shares strong genetic similarities with New World Solanum species, namely, tomato and potato. These syntenic features have been discovered and will undoubtedly assist in an unlocking of the genes controlling eggplant key horticultural traits (Daunay, 2008).

As per FAOSTAT website-2018 quoted by Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India, Horticulture Statistics Division (2018), the world production of eggplant was 51.29 million tons from 1.79 million ha with a productivity of 28.65 tons/ha during 2016. Top ten countries in eggplant production during this period were China, India, Egypt, Turkey, Spain, Iran, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, and Philippines. The bulk of eggplant production came from top ranking China (0.78 million ha area, 32.03 million tons production and 41.06 tons/ha productivity) followed by India (0.66 million ha area, 12.60 million tons production and 19.09 tons/ha productivity) occupying the second rank. Productivity-wise, Spain is top rank holder with productivity close to 65 tons. Leading brinjal producing states in India are West Bengal, Odisha, Gujarat, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Haryana, Jharkhand and Assam.

Aetiology
Classification of the causative agent • Ehrlichia ruminantium (formerly Cowdria ruminantium) Order Rickettsiales, Family Anaplasmataceae
• Small, Gram negative, pleomorphic coccus, and obligate intracellular parasite.
• Strains of E. ruminantium are very diverse and vary in virulence: while some strains are highly virulent, others appear to be less-pathogenic.
• E. ruminantium has a high level of genomic plasticity. Several different genotypes can co-exist in a geographical area, and may recombine to form new strains.
• E. ruminantium multiplies in vascular endothelial cells throughout the body to cause severe vascular compromise.
• It usually occurs in clumps of from less than five to several thousand organisms within the cytoplasm of infected capillary endothelial cells, and can be detected in brain smears by light microscopy.
Resistance to Physical and Chemical Action
Temperature
Heat labile and loses its viability within 12–38 hours at room temperature. Infective stabilities can be cryopreserved in DMSO (dimethyl sulphide) or better yet in sucrosepotassium phosphate-glutamate medium (SPG). Infective half-life of thawed stabilate kept on ice is only 20–30 minutes.
pH: Not applicable.
Disinfectants: Not applicable.
Survival:

The following scientists greatly contributed to the wind driven circulation. Out of all Ekman, Sverdrup, Stommel and Munk are most important and ever remembered for their work. So in the following pages discussion is mostly concentrated on these four scientists theories.

El Nino is the name given to the occasional development of warm ocean surface waters along the coast of Ecuador and Peru. When this warming occurs the usual upwelling of cold, nutrient rich deep ocean water is significantly reduced. El Nino normally occurs around Christmas and lasts usually for a few weeks to a few months. Sometimes an extremely warm event can develop that lasts for much longer time periods. In the 1990s, strong El Ninos developed in 1991 and lasted until 1995, and from fall 1997 to spring 1998.

El Nino means ‘The Little One’ or ‘Christ Child’ in Spanish. It was originally recognized by fisherman of the coast of South America as the appearance of usually warm water in the Pacific Ocean, occurring near the beginning of the year i.e. around Christmas. That is why the name is used. El Nino, the periodic warming of Pacific Ocean waters that affects the weather worldwide. C. Fred and T. Andrus of the University of Georgia studied the ancient fish bones from refuse left about 6000 years ago by ancient peoples in Peru and found that ocean catfish lived in water that averaged 60 to 70 warmer than now and that there was little variation in temperature. He concluded that if El Nino was occurring at the modern rate, once every two to seven years, then the bones from the fish would have reflected the temperature variation.

1. Botanical name : Elaeocarpus serratus

2. Family : Elaeocarpaceae

3. Common Name : Ceylon olive and Wild olive

4. Name in Indian languages: Veralu (Sinhala) and Karai or Ulankarai (Tamil).

5. Description

Elaeocarpus serratus, also called, Ceylon olive is a tropical fruit . The tree is a medium size tree with leaves similar to avocado. The tree usually measures from 8 to 15 metres in height. The fruits are almost similar to the large green olives. This is a sun loving tree grows on Loam soil and requires low maintenance. The delicate, lacy, white flowers usually attract a myriad of insect pollinators, notably flies, wasps and flower beetles.

8.1 Introduction

Cartilaginous fishes have ventrally placed mouths with teeth in several series. They possess rigid dorsal fins and placoid scales. They have five pairs of gill clefts opening individually to the exterior, a lower jaw articulated with the upper jaw and upper jaw not fused to the skull, no swim bladder, an operculum, an endolymphatic duct and a heterocercal or homocercal tail. It shows internal fertilization, meroblastic cleavage and direct development.

Elasmobranchii includes a wide range of cartilaginous fishes. Dogfish sharks are commonly studied all over the world probably because of their suitable size for dissection.

Marshall was the frst to establish the idea of elasticity. According to the law of demand, if the price increases, fewer units will be sought for. But it’s crucial to know how much less will be expected of it. Such inquiries are crucial when formulating public policy. For instance: A price rise for salt might not have much of an effect on demand, but a price increase for TV will have more of an effect. Why? The idea of elasticity provides an answer to such queries. In economics, the concept of “elasticity” is frequently used to describe how responsive one variable is to changes in another.:

Elasticity of demand

Demand elasticity generally refers to demand’s sensitivity to price. However, there are as many levels of elasticity as there are demand determinants. The most important Elasticities are:

Determinants of demand Elasticity