eChapters

Forest microclimate is the climate within a forest in contrast to a nearby open area created by a clearing or pasture. A robust observation is that less sunlight reaches the ground in a forest than in open areas, but this depends on the size of the clearing, the height of trees surrounding the clearing, and the location in the clearing (relative to the edge) where measurements are obtained. Daytime temperature is generally lower in forest than in open areas, with greatest differences during the growing season; but this, too, is subject to edge effects and whether the canopy is sparse or dense. Wind near the ground is less than in exposed areas or above the canopy. Another point is that there are various microclimates within a forest canopy. The environment of the forest overstory differs from that of the understory, and this has important consequences for species conservation and protection from climate change. The forest microclimate has important implications for habitat and biodiversity conservation and may act to buffer forest understory organisms from the severity of climate change. Forest microclimates differ not only in contrast with open land, but also vertically with position in the canopy (Fig. 8.1).

There is an increased use of Glass houses and poly houses in commercial agriculture. The glass houses and poly houses provide a controlled environment for plants throughout the year. Some of the aspects of related to the advantages of Glass houses and poly houses are highlighted in the following text:
9.1. Glass houses
Glass houses are also referred as greenhouses. The glass prevents harmful ultraviolet radiations. The glass is transparent to solar radiations of wavelengths up to 300 nm and does not allow long-wave radiations to pass through it (Fig.9.1). Therefore, the Glass houses maintain higher temperature and high relative humidity during daytime as well as nighttime and offer the following advantages:
9.1.1. Controlled Environment: Glass houses facilitate regulation of temperature,
humidity, and light intensity, creating optimum environment for growing various plant species. This is especially beneficial for tropical and sub-tropical plants that require specific conditions to grow and survive.
9.1.2. Protection from Pests and Diseases: The enclosed glass house protects
plants from pests and diseases. The glass house also protects the plants from harsh weather conditions thereby minimizing risk of infestations and environmental stresses. Fig. 9.1: Microclimate management in Glass house
9.1.3. Extended Growing Season: By maintaining stable climate, glass houses
enable cultivation of plants that may not survive outdoors in certain climates thereby extending the growing season for sensitive species.
9.1.4. Research and Conservation: Botanical gardens often use glass houses for
research purposes, studying plant growth, genetics and breeding. The glass houses will also serve as a means for conserving rare or endangered plant species by providing stable environment for propagation. The advantage of glass houses is that the structure has long life span.
9.2. Poly houses
The poly houses are constructed using polythene material. The poly houses protect the plants from wind, cold weather, hail storms, extreme temperatures, insects and pests. The polythene house farming is a popular greenhouse technology due to its low cost of construction and maintenance. Generally, heat accumulation (70 to 75 per cent of solar energy) takes place inside the polyhouse. Solar radiation is allowed to pass through the polythene material and the long wave radiation cannot escape through polythene. The benefits of poly houses are:

A farm microclimate refers to the specific climatic conditions of a small, localized area within a farm. These conditions can differ significantly from the broader regional climate due to various natural and man-made factors. Understanding and managing microclimates is crucial for optimizing crop growth, animal welfare, and overall farm productivity. Modern commercial dairy production requires a special approach to the microclimate on the farm. High quality milk and animal health depend on the conditions of their keeping. At the same time, farm for dairy production for the most part do not have the means to control and manage the microclimate, in contrast to poultry farm. When organizing the correct process of controlling the microclimate, a prerequisite is the presence of an automated system for collecting data. Generally animals adapt to a wide range of weather conditions although their growth and productivity varies with weather conditions. Buffaloes and cows form the main component in dairy industry. The extent to which these animals can adapt to different weather conditions is given below: Successful management of buffalo rearing will be incomplete without wellplanned and adequate housing facilities (Fig.10.1).
Improper planning in the arrangement of animal housing may result in management problems, increase in disease incidence, additional labour charges and hence decrease in the profit of the farmer. During erection of a house for dairy buffaloes, care should be taken to provide comfortable accommodation for individual animals. It is important to ensure:
• Proper sanitation
• Durability
• Abundant supply of clean water
• Arrangements for the production of clean milk under convenient and
economic conditions.
Buffaloes may be successfully housed under a wide variety of conditions, ranging from close confinement to little restrictions except at milking time. However, two types of farms are in general use.

The fate of smoke from a wild land fire depends in large part on the airflow carrying it away from the fire which can involve a complex interaction of eddies that may occur near the ground or expand beyond the atmospheric mixed layer (Fig.11.1). The buoyancy of smoke and ambient atmospheric conditions determines how high and how quickly the smoke rises, and thus where it travels.
The smoke plume distribution is affected by number of factors as indicated below:
• Elevation: The smoke plumes at higher elevations disperse the smoke particles more vertically while plumes from lover elevations disperse more horizontally.
• Temperature: The large difference between the smoke and surrounding air affects the Plume dynamics. The buoyancy force increases the vertical velocity of the particles, while heat diffusion increases surrounding air temperature.
• Moisture: The presence of moisture can modify the distribution of smoke and chemistry of smoke particles.
• Topography: Topography can influence emissions that remain within the mixing zone.
• Atmospheric stability: Atmospheric stability can affect the distribution of smoke.

During most of the years, there will be loss of agricultural production by at least 15 to 20 per cent per annum due to unfavourable weather situations. The farmers practicing agriculture expect uniform returns every year as the investment costs are much higher and cannot afford loss in production. Of late, the inter-seasonal and intra seasonal variations in weather are very frequent. The weather conditions observed were found to exceed even beyond known limits. Exceptional deviation from any one single weather parameter like air temperature, rainfall and wind can trigger considerable loss in production or sometimes even crop failure (Fig.12.1). Fig. 12.1: Components of a microclimate and its interlinkages Large scale weather modification is not practicable to a greater extent as uniform results cannot be expected under these conditions. There is need to explore cost effective management options that may significantly alter some weather parameter that is detrimental to crop production at field level by the farmers themselves. Therefore, microclimatic modification is an emerging technology to alter or change the unfavourable weather conditions detrimental to crop growth using cost effective and easily manageable techniques for minimizing the loss in crop production. The options for microclimatic modification have to be decided based on whether and the nature of weather aberrations. For example, dry spells are most common during rainy season in most of the arid and semi-arid regions. The farmers growing crops under rainfed conditions suffer considerable loss in production due to occurrence of dry spells as the crop experiences moisture stress. These dry spells may occur any time during the growing season. In such situations, the farmer needs to adopt a management option even before sowing a crop. Sometimes, the occurrence of weather aberration cannot be anticipated and the farmer has to prepare for adopting a management option based on weather forecast. Such measures are temporary and needs to be adopted to ward off the unfavourable weather conditions to a certain extent. Microclimatic modification can be a permanent, seasonal or temporary option depending upon the climate of the region. The crop microclimate refers to the climate just above and within the crop canopy and in the soil root zone that can be influenced by the day-today management practices. Microclimate modification is a measure to change or regulate the weather parameter at farm level. The microclimate management option also depends upon the nature and type of the soil as well.

The weather plays a very significant role in crop production. The agricultural production depends upon four factors i.e., soil, genetic material, management practices and weather. Of these four factors, the farmers have least control on weather and have to evolve management strategies to cope up with the weather conditions. The crops can be grown only when the seasonal weather conditions are conducive to crop production. The different weather factors on crop growth and development are as follows:
13.1. Temperature
For each species of plants, there are upper and lower limits of temperature beyond which the growth is negligible. The optimum temperatures at which growth is maximum may vary from crop to crop but will be within the range of 15 to 30°C. Temperatures beyond 45°C cause wilting of plants. There are also optimum temperature requirements during different stages of crop growth.
13.1.1. Warm Season Crops: The Warm season crops are rice, sorghum, maize,
pearl millet, groundnut, pigeon pea, cowpea etc. These crops are also called tropical crops. These crops can be grown during monsoon season and in early summer season. The optimum temperatures for these crops fall in the range of 15°C to 38°C.
13.1.2. Cool Season Crops: The crops which grow best under cool weather
conditions are called cool season crops and are generally grown during winter season. The important cool season crops are wheat, mustard, Chickpea, barley, potato, Safflower. These crops are also called temperate crops. The optimum temperature for better growth of these plants range from 10°C to 30°C.
13.2. Effect of Temperature on Growth and Development
The crop development is described in terms of its various stages of growth including germination of seeds, emergence of seedlings, tillering, flower initiation, grain formation, physiological maturity and harvest maturity etc., before it completes its life cycle. The various stages of growth, the crop passes through are called phenophases. Phenology is the study of timing of the phenophases. The temperature and day length (photo period) will have considerable influence on phenology of the crops. The temperature from which crop development begins is called base temperature. The base temperature is considered as 8°C for the crops grown during kharif season and 5°C for the crops grown during winter

14.1. Slope
It is a crucial topographic factor that affects water drainage, erosion and accessibility of agricultural machinery. Steep slopes increase the risk of soil erosion, and water run-off requiring erosion control measures such as contour ploughing or terracing. Slope also affects the availability of sunlight, as steeper slopes may cast shadows and influence microclimates within a field.
14.2. Altitude / Elevation
Elevation is the vertical distance of a point or location above a reference point, often mean sea level. It influences temperature, atmospheric pressure, and the types of crops that can be grown in an area. Higher altitudes generally experience cooler temperatures, which may limit the choice of crops that can thrive. Elevation affects the length of the growing season and influences the choice of appropriate crop varieties. In summary, elevation is an absolute measure of the vertical distance above a reference point (such as MSL), while it is a relative measure that describes the variation in elevation within a specific area or region. Elevation provides information about the height of a point, whereas it provides insights into the topographic features and slopes of a given agricultural landscape. Both elevation and relief are important considerations in agriculture as they influence factors such as water drainage, temperature gradients, and suitability for specific crops.
14.3. Aspect
Aspect refers to orientation of the slope (north, south, east or west). It affects the distribution of sun light; wind patterns and temperature gradients in a field. In the northern hemisphere, the north side of slope is often shaded while the southern side receives more solar radiation and heat, creating warmer microclimates and potentially influencing the choice of crops or planting strategies. Aspect can also impact the risk of frost or cold air drainage in certain regions. Whereas, in the southern hemisphere, the south side slopes get shaded and north facing slopes receive more solar radiation.
14.4. Relief
Relief refers to the variation in altitude between different points. It is a relative measure on changes in altitude across a particular landscape or agricultural area. The valley slopes are preferred sites for agriculture in mountain regions due to several reasons:
• The valley slopes offer relatively flatter terrain, making it easier for farming activities such as cultivation, irrigation and mechanization.
• The valleys tend to have better access to water resources such as rivers or streams which can be used for irrigation water.
• The valley slopes provide good sun exposure and protection from strong winds creating favourable microclimates for crop growth
• The natural drainage patterns of valleys help preventing water logging and ensure better water management.

There is growing demand for increasing fruit production as fruits are considered to be healthy, nutritious and easy to digest. Fruits are natural foods and have export potential as well as provide opportunities for increasing employment by establishing fruit processing industries. Some of the fruits can be grown around the year where as some fruits are of seasonal in nature. Usually, the fruit cultivation is undertaken by establishing orchards. In case of orchards, wrong decisions in planting may result in huge loss and therefore right method of planting is the key factor for establishing orchards.
The fruit crops are of three types depending on the adoptability to the climate of the region and are grouped as
• tropical fruits
• sub-tropical fruits
• temperate fruits
The microclimate of the orchards depends upon
• height of the plants/trees
• horizontal spread
• canopy architecture
• spacing/plant density
• age of plantation
• seasonal weather
15.1. Tropical Fruits
The tropical fruits require higher temperature throughout the year. The crops do not require low temperature for breaking dormancy and for flowering. The plants are ever green and grow throughout the year. There plants are well adopted to regions where the minimum temperatures are more than 10°C and very sensitive to frost. There are grown in tropical regions between 23°N to 23°S latitudes. The optimum maximum temperature for growth and development ranges from 30 to 37°C.
15.2. Sub-Tropical Fruits
The sub-tropical fruits perform better between temperate and tropical climates as the plant requires both high and low temperatures. Some of the fruit crops are green and some of those are deciduous. The temperate fruit crops are very sensitive to frost. The sub-tropical fruit plants break dormancy of flower buds

16.1. Global Warming
The industrial revolution from mid 18th century is recognized as the primary cause of atmospheric pollution. Some of the gases like CO2, Chlorofluorocarbons, methane, nitrous oxide etc. are getting released into the atmosphere in greater volumes by combustion of fossil fuels. These gases can absorb the heat radiation leading to increase in air temperature and are called as greenhouse gases. When there is no vertical movement of air, these gases can accumulate near the ground and causes serious health hazards (Fig.16.2). Fig. 16.2: Global warming Under unstable conditions, there will be more convection and vertical movement of air that can prevent pollution near ground level. These air pollutants can be transmitted and carried away to long distance by strong winds. So, the air pollution which defies local, regional or even continental boundaries can cause atmospheric pollution and global warming. Therefore, air pollution control is not an issue for just one location or region and is now a matter of global concern.
16.2. Climate Change
As the greenhouse gases are spreading into the atmosphere, there is gradual increase in the air temperature and if no control measures are uniformly adopted

Urban climatology deals with changes in climatic conditions that prevail in large cities and towns that differ from the surroundings. Urban climates are influenced by large built-up areas, increased human activities and dense population and are found to experience differences in temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction and rainfall compared to adjoining areas. Tall buildings, paved streets and parking lots affect radiation balance, wind flow and run-off. The atmosphere in urban areas will have higher concentration of pollutants like carbon monoxide, oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, hydrocarbons, oxidants and particulate matters. Heavy concentration of air pollutants will have considerable impact on temperature, humidity, wind, and precipitation in and around urban areas. Heavy concentrations of air pollutants for longer periods or several days may lead to temperature inversions. The temperature inversions prevent convection and vertical movement of air. The centre of urban area will be warmer by even 5 to 6°C compared to adjoining areas. During summer months, the concrete structures absorb, store and reradiate more solar energy per unit area compared to vegetation. During nights, radiative losses from urban buildings and roads keep city warmer than the rural areas. The average relative humidity in cities is usually lower due to lack of evapotranspiration from vegetation. The mean wind speed will be 20 to 30 percent due to increased frictional drag induced by built up urban terrain (Fig.17.1).
The urban areas influence precipitation patterns in its vicinity as turbulence and convection get modified by city environment.
17.1. Urban Heat Islands
An urban heat island is a type of microclimate that is created when an urban area becomes warmer than the surrounding area. It is common in large cities (Fig.17.2). The characteristic features of urban heat islands are as follows:
• Increased temperature
• Large temperature difference by even 5 to 6°C
• The south facing buildings receive more sunlight in the northern hemisphere
• The tall buildings in urban areas create streets that act like deep valley
• The albedo will be very less. The darker areas lead to more absorption of incoming solar radiation and emit more of long wave radiation
• The concrete structures are built with materials having low specific heat. Therefore, concrete structures warm up faster and lead to quick rise in temperature
• The higher density of buildings reduces wind speeds.

Remote sensing is a technology that enables us to acquire information about one object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object. Generally, we are used to take observations in site or at the site. Development of remote sensing technology is now making it possible to quickly and almost simultaneously to collect information from the earth surface and other planets as well. Remote sensing is used to measure the thermal complexity and structural complexity of microclimates and how organisms respond to environmental changes. The thermal complexity is a result of the response and behaviour of different characteristics of the earth surface including vegetation, soils, structures, water bodies etc. Optical remote sensing makes use of visible, near infrared and short-wave infrared sensors to form images of the earth’s surface by detecting the solar radiation refl ected from targets on the ground. Different materials refl ect and absorb differently at different wavelengths. Thus, the targets can be differentiated by their spectral refl ectance signatures in the remotely sensed images (Fig.18.1). Satellite Refelcted Solar Radiation Forest Water Grass Bare Soil Paved Road Built-up Area Atmosphere Incident Solar Radiation Sun
Structural complexity is defi ned as minimum number of numerical specifi cations required to describe an object in physical space. Structural complexity is a key ecological factor that describes the three-dimensional physical structure of the ecosystem. It is often linked with biodiversity.

Agriculture is number one priority in economic planning and for the welfare of the people. It is most indispensable sector. Severe food shortages due to short comings and mismanagement of agriculture will have long lasting effect. In recent years, the uncertainties in agriculture are increasing due to climate change and farmers are required to be very vigilant and cautions right from planning of field operations till they recover their investment and end up with better returns. The governments all over the world are very much cautious of the problems of the farmers. There is greater realization that strengthening meteorological services to generate accurate and timely weather forecasts is the starting point to help farmers in carrying out appropriate management practices to ensure better crop production and minimise the risks associated with unfavourable weather situations. The farmers can manage to take their own decisions with regard to choice of crops, land preparation, fertilizer applications, weed control, irrigation scheduling etc which are of routine nature (Fig.19.1). But there are several issues for which farmers do not have adequate knowledge just based on weather forecast. It is now very much realised all over the world that there is need to transform the weather forecasts into an actionable operational agrometeorological advisories based on sound scientific hypothesis and authentic database. Though it appears to be very simple and easy solution, the agencies that

In cropped soils, evaporation refers to evaporation of water from the soil and transpiration refers to evaporation of water from plant canopies (Fig.6.1). Evaporation and transpiration play very significant role in mass and energy transfer. The latent heat of vaporization is defined as amount of heat required to evaporate 1 gm of water at a temperature of 100°C; i.e. the boiling point of water is 540 cal/gm. The amount of heat required for evaporation of water at ordinary temperature of about say 30°C is 610 cal/gm.
Fig. 6.1: Process of evapotranspiration
The evapotranspiration from crop depends upon several factors as indicated below:
• The evapotranspiration increases with increase in air temperature.
• The evapotranspiration increases with increase in wind speed up to a certain limit.
• The evapotranspiration decreases with increase in relative humidity
• The evapotranspiration increases with increase in Saturation Vapor Pressure Deficit (SVPD). SVPD = es – ea

Introduction 
Ergonomics is the science of adapting workplace conditions and job requirements to match the capabilities of the workforce. Its primary aim is to enhance comfort, improve health, and boost productivity in the work environment. To achieve these goals, ergonomics examines the interaction between workers and their tools, equipment, and furniture, ensuring they are aligned with the tasks being performed. It involves applying scientific knowledge about human behavior and physical needs to design objects, systems, and environments that promote efficiency and safety. Ergonomics is relevant to all activities involving people, including work systems, recreational pursuits, and health and safety measures. By focusing on the relationship between individuals and their work environments, ergonomics plays a crucial role in safeguarding both physical health and workplace safety. The foundation of good ergonomic practices lies in adapting tasks to suit the individual rather than forcing the individual to conform to the job. An ergonomically designed workplace incorporates tools and processes that accommodate workers’ physical abilities and limitations, reducing the risk of injuries and discomfort. The importance of ergonomics has grown as it highlights the connection between certain job activities and the risk of injury. The human body is not designed to remain in awkward or unnatural positions for extended periods without experiencing strain. Ergonomics helps identify harmful postures and movements and provides strategies to prevent associated pain and injuries. In office environments, ergonomic practices are essential for enhancing productivity. A well-designed ergonomic workplace can improve efficiency, boost employee morale, and contribute to overall worker well-being. The various environmental factors affect working people in one or the other way, it may be health, performance and comfort. However they are not independent because, although these aspects are considered independently but their effect likely to be combined. Although human beings are extremely adoptable but still they get affected of the ideal range of tolerance to environmental factors for comfort or for performance is very narrow. Although physiological effects of environmental

2.1 Time and Energy Requirements of Work
The time and energy requirements of work can vary significantly depending on several factors related to the nature of the work, the worker’s capabilities and motivation, and the workplace environment. Let’s explore each aspect:
1. Nature of the Work
Complexity: work that requires high levels of skill, expertise, and problemsolving will generally demand more time and energy.
Physical demands: jobs that involve manual labor or physically strenuous activities can be more energy-intensive.
Cognitive demands: intellectual or creative work can be mentally taxing, requiring concentration and focus for extended periods.
2. Worker Factors
Physical health: a worker’s overall health and fitness level can impact how much time and energy they can dedicate to their job.
Skill set and experience: experienced workers might complete tasks more efficiently, reducing time requirements.
Motivation: highly motivated individuals tend to invest more energy and time into their work.
Work-life balance: if a worker is dealing with excessive stress or personal issues, it can affect their ability to concentration and perform optimally.
3. Workplace Factors
Work environment: a comfortable, well-designed workspace can contribute to increased productivity and reduced fatigue.
Technology and tools: access to advanced tools and technology can streamline tasks and save time and energy.
Support and collaboration: a positive work culture and supportive colleagues can enhance job satisfaction and productivity.
Workload and deadlines: unrealistic workloads and tight deadlines can lead to stress and exhaustion.

Introduction
Work study is a quantification method employed for examining a man’s job in an institution. It encompasses two techniques- they are method study and work measurement. With expansion in size along with complexity of organizations it is becoming very difficult to manage the affairs of a company. There is no quantification technique to compute the efficacy of the human work force. A manager can construct good plans about the requirement of goods and services only when he can predict the amount and type of human work force is essential. It is a very common execution from ages in the organizations but these are not providing the satisfactory results. So in order to attain the predicted results efficiently along with standards, organizations started employing work measurement techniques. Fig. 3.1: Work measurement
Meaning
Work measurement denotes quantity of time required for accomplishing a job without comprising in quality the minimum time needed for executing a task is termed as standard or allowed time. So work measurement aids individuals or corporations to enhance their achievement effectively by good plan and execution. It is very essential to employ these techniques because time is a scarce resource. Work study is investigating the human work with respect to physical, physiological, psychological and economical aspects. It investigates the factors affecting the work and workers efficacy and economy to provide necessary suggestions.

4.1 Introduction
Workplace design focuses on the structure, dimensions, and layout (placement and orientation) of various elements that surround one or more workers. These elements may include seating (e.g., working chairs), work surfaces, desks, equipment, tools, controls, displays, passages, windows, heating and cooling systems, and more.
The goal of ergonomic workplace design is to enhance work performance in terms of both quality and quantity by achieving the following objectives:
• Reducing physical strain and workload on workers.
• Simplifying task execution by ensuring efficient information exchange with the surroundings and minimizing physical constraints.
• Promoting occupational health and safety.
• Ensuring the ease of use of workplace elements.
Designing an ergonomically sound workplace is a complex process requiring consideration of numerous interacting and variable components. It involves addressing multiple requirements, some of which may conflict. Workplace design must account for the relationship between its components, the worker, task requirements, environmental conditions, and the natural body movements and postures workers adopt.
4.2 Principles of Workstation and System Design Workstation Design Principles
1. Reduction of Static Muscular Work: The human body is built for movement, which aids in blood circulation, supplying oxygen and nutrients to tissues. Static pressure—whether from external sources (supporting surfaces) or internal sources (muscle tension)—hinders blood flow. Static muscle contraction increases both systolic and diastolic blood pressure, causing the heart to work harder. Workstations should minimize static pressure, as workers often spend extended periods at them. Guidelines for workstation design primarily focus on reducing static loads and promoting dynamic movement.

5.1 Introduction
Since the early days of human interaction with the environment, particularly in industrial settings, humans have continually been “shaped” to meet the demands of their surroundings. Historically, people have often endured significant discomfort and limitations without much complaint. In metaphorical terms, individuals have adapted by extending their reach to operate controls that were difficult to access, pushing their perceptual abilities to detect faint sounds or invisible signals, and compressing their bodies to fit into cramped workspaces. Cognitive abilities have also been stretched to accommodate monotonous or tedious tasks. However, as both work environments and machines have grown more complex, these challenges have become increasingly significant. A poor “fit” between the human operator and their environment has led to countless accidents, decreased productivity, and errors in many industries. The primary goal of ergonomics is to assess human capabilities and design the environment to align with these capabilities. Instead of attempting to adapt humans to jobs, ergonomics strives to “fit the job to the person.” This approach aims to optimize safety, efficiency, and comfort by aligning machine requirements with the operator’s abilities. By establishing a connection between humans and machines, ergonomics ensures that machines communicate information to the operator through their sensory systems, prompting a response that may alter the machine’s state. Key environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, lighting, sound, and visual conditions have a direct impact on both human well-being and the quality of production. The design of both the human workspace and the equipment used can be highly effective if the environment is conducive to the operator’s needs. Therefore, it is essential to study each environmental factor from an ergonomic perspective to ensure a comfortable and productive environment for workers. This includes designing jobs, equipment, and considering human anthropometric measurements in the design process.
5.2 Heat
Heat stress occurs as a result of the combined effects of environmental conditions, physical exertion, and clothing. The key environmental factors influencing heat stress include air temperature, humidity, radiant heat, and air movement, all of which can significantly affect work performance. Heat strain refers to the

The yesteryear concept of employing one or two acclaimed anaesthetic drugs to produce sedation and general anaesthesia is now switching over to the era of balanced sedation and balanced anaesthesia. The theory of balanced anaesthesia entails achieving the state of general anaesthesia with the proportionate administration of a mixture of small amounts of several neuronal depressant drugs which summates the advantages of the individual drugs but not their disadvantages (Bettschart-Wolfensberger and Larenza, 2007). Knowledge about balanced anesthesia and targeted effects of drugs on neuronal pathways has started to influence veterinary anaesthetists worldwide. But there are many constraints for a vast majority of veterinary practitioners in India to follow this emerging modality of anaesthetic practice. It is almost impractical for most of them to get the assistance of a veterinary anaesthesiologist every time. So they experience complexities to deal with the pharmacological dosing of multiple component drugs of balanced anaesthetic protocols. Memorising the doses and calculating the volume of injection of multiple component drugs where the doses of some drugs has to be calculated in milligram per kilogram body weight while others have to be calculated in microgram per kilogram body weight becomes a cumbersome task for the practitioner. Moreover, many of these anaesthetic drugs are available in ampoules, and hence multiple ampoules have to be broken for every single surgery; consuming a lot of time. Wastage of the leftover anaesthetic in opened ampoules is another concern. Unavailability of some drugs at some areas is another issue the practitioner faces. These challenges constrain the practitioner from practicing balanced anaesthesia and most of them lean on the verily familiar conventional anaesthetic protocol, based exclusively on one or two frequently used drugs, for almost all the surgical procedures of varying depth. Since only one or two anaesthetic drugs are involved in the protocol, the drugs have to be used at its upper limit of pharmacological doses to achieve the desired endpoints of anaesthesia. This will increase the probable risk of undesired side effects of these drugs. The challenges that restrict our practitioners from advancing beyond the era of sole reliance on one or two drugs for producing the state of anaesthesia has to be addressed and measures to resolve these issues have to be evolved to promote and equip our veterinary practitioners to practice the safer technique of balanced anaesthesia. Encompassing these objectives, and based on evidence and

The drug conventionally used for sedation is xylazine, which is an alpha-2 agonist (Dugdale, 2010; Rankin, 2015). Dexmedetomidine is the latest drug of the same class used for sedation, and is more specific to alpha2 receptors than xylazine (Ishyama et al., 1995). Doses of 1-2 mg per kg body weight of xylazine (Hall and Clarke, 2001) and upto 20 mcg per kg body weight of dexmedetomidine (Ko, 2013) are required for sedation when used alone (Hall and Clarke, 2001; Rankin, 2015). Similar degrees of sedation could still be achieved at lower doses of xylazine (0.2 to 0.4 mg per kg body weight) and dexmedetomidine (2.5 to 5 mcg per kg) if administered in combination with any opioid drug like hydromorphone / oxymorphone / fentanyl / buprenorphine / butorphanol / nalbuphine / tramadol at their usual doses (Hunt et al., 2013). Another drug - acepromazine, which is a phenothiazine tranquiliser, is used at its doses of 0.01 to 0.05 mg/kg combined with an opioid for achieving sedation (Smith et al., 2001; Dugdale, 2020; Ko, 2013). Combination of an opioid with either a phenothiazine tranquiliser or an alpha2 agonist sedative drug provides neurolept anaesthesia/analgesia (Dugdale, 2020; Rankin, 2015). An anticholinergic drug - glycopyrrolate is administered in combination with acepromazine and opioid to prevent bradycardia (Dyson and James-Davies, 1999). Anticholinergics are generally not recommended with sedative cocktails containing dexmedetomidine, but preferred with sedative cocktails containing xylazine (Congdon et al., 2011; Billah et al., 2017). If sedation is to be achieved with acepromazine alone, higher doses need to be administered where there will be an increase in its dose dependent side effects, and hence not preferred (Simon and Steagall, 2020). Benzodiazepines are another class of sedative drugs, which generally doesn’t provide predictable sedation in animals. Paradoxical excitement is caused in healthy adults when these drugs are used alone (Herron et al., 2008). Predictable sedation is achieved when these drugs are administered in combination with any opioids (KuKanich and Wiese, 2015). Also, benzodiazepines can be combined with an alpha2-opioid combination to enhance the overall sedation (Maze et al., 1992). Various balanced sedative cocktails prepared with the drugs available for a veterinary practitioner in India, are presented. The balanced sedative cocktails are prepared with either

Ketamine and Propofol - “Ketofol”
“Ketofol’’ is a 1:1 (w:w) combination of ketamine and propofol (Taboada and Leece, 2014; Thejasree et al., 2018). The advantages of using both ketamine and propofol in combination (Ketofol) include analgesia, rapid recovery, preservation of airways and maintenance of spontaneous respiration and haemodynamic stability (Saeed, 2011). The admixture has benefits of both drugs, while reducing the side effects of the individual drugs when administered alone (Amornyotin, 2014; Lee and Lee, 2016; Mirfazaelian et al., 2016). Propofol-induced respiratory depression is less with the admixture, while analgesia and cardiorespiratory functions are good due to ketamine (Amornyotin, 2014; Mirfazaelian et al., 2016). Since the adverse effects are dose dependent, the combination helps reduce the dose of the individual drug needed to cause the desired anaesthetic effects. This combination of ketamine and propofol can be used to induce anaesthesia following sedation with any of the previously mentioned balanced sedative cocktails. Induction should be “titrated to effect” based on the depth of sedation achieved from the administration of the balanced sedative cocktails.
Thiopentone and Propofol - “Thio-propofol”
Thio-propofol is a 1:1 vol:vol mixture of 2.5% thiopentone and 1% propofol (Ko et al., 1999; Evans et al., 2002; Larisa et al., 2008). Since the mechanisms of action of propofol and thiopentone are similar, the mixture provides an additive hypnotic interaction (Vinik et al., 1999) and behaves in-between to that of the

Combination of an opioid (butorphanol/buprenorphine) and an alpha-2 agonist (xylazine/dexmedetomidine) along with an NMDA antagonist and benzodiazepine (tiletamine-zolazepam or ketamine-midazolam) will make up a balanced anaesthetic cocktail. Examples for balanced anaesthetic cocktails are xylazine/dexmedetomidine-butorphanol-midazolam-ketamine and butorphanol/ buprenorphine-tiletamine zolazepam-dexmedetomidine/xylazine (Ko, 2013; Cagle et al., 2017; Sooryadas et al., 2019; Verma et al., 2020). The latter ones are costly due to the tiletamine-zolazepam and dexmedetomidine in them, while the former ones are cost effective alternatives.
Xylazine/Dexmedetomidine-Butorphanol-Midazolam-Ketamine (XBMK/DBMK) Anaesthetic Cocktail
The preparation can be made by drawing 0.1 ml/kg of ketamine (50 mg/ml presentation) along with 0.1 to 0.2 ml/kg of the xylazine-butorphanol-midazolam (XBM) or dexmedetomidine-butorphanol-midazolam (DBM) sedative cocktail in a single syringe. For intravenous administration, 0.1 ml/kg each of ketamine and the sedative cocktail is to be chosen, while for intramuscular administration 0.1 ml/kg of ketamine and 0.2 ml/kg of the sedative cocktail is preferred. The volume of the cocktail that needs to be administered intramuscularly will be larger by 0.1 ml/kg when compared to the tiletamine-zolazepam based anaesthetic cocktails. Anticholinergic premedication is preferred prior to administration of anaesthetic cocktail containing xylazine (Nesgash et al., 2016), particularly if given intravenously. The XBMK/DBMK anaesthetic cocktails will induce anaesthesia in a few minutes, which last for 20 to 40 minutes (Ko, 2013; Verma et al., 2019; Verma et al., 2020). Intravenous administration of the anaesthetic cocktail provides shorter duration of surgical plane of anaesthesia. When administered as said above, the combination provides xylazine @ 0.2 - 0.4 mg/kg or dexmedetomidine @ 2.5 - 5 mcg/kg, butorphanol @ 0.1 - 0.2 mg/kg, midazolam @ 0.125 - 0.25 mg/kg and ketamine @ 5 mg/kg body weight which is as per their recommended doses when given in combination (Verma et al., 2019; Verma et al., 2020).

Total Intravenous Anaesthesia
Maintenance of anaesthesia, conventionally, is done either with inhalants, or as intermittent boli of injectable anaesthetics. The pharmacological complexity of the uptake and elimination of inhalant anaesthetic agents, and the need of technical and functional knowhow, of inhalant anaesthesia machine, either restricts its use in majority clinical practice, or is not used in an ideal manner. Injectable anaesthetic drugs as intermittent boli “as and when needed” is the practice by majority practitioners for maintenance of anaesthesia. Intermittent bolus injections of anaesthetic drugs creates intermittent peaks of anaesthesia and thereby increased side effects due to high doses. Instead, a continuous rate infusion of the anaesthetic drugs, in smaller quantities is employed in TIVA, providing balanced anaesthetic maintenance. These drugs act through different pathways, providing analgesia, muscle relaxation and unconsciousness, in a synergistic manner. TIVA is thus a technique in which anaesthesia is maintained solely through the use of intravenous drugs, without reliance on inhaled anaesthetics (Kennedy, 2016). Total intravenous anaesthesia is commonly achieved using a combination of sedative-hypnotics, analgesics and even muscle relaxation drugs, often administered via continuous rate infusion (CRI) to maintain stable drug levels (Verma et al., 2020). The key advantage of TIVA is that it provide stable haemodynamics because it maintains the sympathetic tone well. Also, this procedure promises less environmental contamination avoiding exposure to anaesthetic gas in the operating rooms. TIVA is emerging as a popular option in a range of surgical procedures due to its benefits in patient comfort, recovery, and control over anaesthesia depth. Few examples of anaesthetic cocktails for total intravenous anaesthesia in dogs through constant rate infusion are mentioned below. Easy understanding on how to calculate and prepare CRI is mentioned later.
1. Dexmedetomidine (2 mcg/kg/hr), midazolam (3 mcg/kg/min), lignocaine (50 mcg/kg/min) and ketamine (40 mcg/kg/min) as a cocktail intravenous infusion in normal saline. Anaesthesia is induced by intramuscular administration of a cocktail of DBMK mentioned in earlier chapter, followed by an intravenous loading dose of lignocaine at the rate of 2 mg/kg prior to the cocktail intravenous infusion (Verma et al., 2020).
2. Xylazine (1 mg/kg/hr), midazolam (3 mcg/kg/min), lignocaine (50 mcg/kg/ min) and ketamine (40 mcg/kg/min) as a cocktail intravenous infusion in

1.1 Evolution of Factory System
Family-run cottage businesses transformed to the factory system, which employed a division of labour and machinery-based manufacturing process, during the Industrial Revolution. At the start of the Industrial Revolution in the late 1700s, the factory system was initially implemented in Great Britain and quickly extended around the world. The employment of machinery, initially propelled by steam or water and subsequently by electricity, is the primary feature of the factory system. When cotton spinning was mechanised, the factory system spread widely. The factory would receive raw cotton, spin it, bleach it, dye it, and weave it into finished cloth. Before the factory system, many goods, such as shoes, were crafted by expert artisans, who would typically create an entire item by hand. By contrast, factories employed a division of labour whereby most workers were either unskilled workers who moved materials and finished things or low-skilled labourers who operated machinery. From the textile industry, the factory system expanded to other sectors of the economy. To produce metal, small local forges and blacksmiths were replaced by massive furnaces and mills. Eventually, machines took the position of skilled artisans in most of the items that were produced.
1.2 Need of Products Made by Industries
As time passes, the need of the products manufactured by various industries grows exponentially. This is mainly to give comfort to the people in their day-today life. Take the case of cycle, which helps people to move from one place another place. Later, it has been partially replaced by powered motor cycle, which serves the same purpose, but with power using fuel. This gives the comfort of travelling long distance in less time. Presently, there are high powered two wheelers, which can travel at a speed of more than 100 km per hr. If one compares the growth of the technology from cycle to high powered two-wheeler, there is a tremendous improvement in terms of end uses to satisfy customers. The goods that are produced by the industries are classified into consumer goods and industrial goods. Consumer goods are completed items that are sold to and utilised by customers, whereas industrial goods are raw materials used to produce other products. Industrial products are purchased and utilised for

2.1 Tracing History of Casting
The manufacture of end products, viz. two-wheeler, four-wheeler, fan, washing machine, fridge, grinding machine, water cooler, etc., in companies requires many components. The components of these products have different shapes and sizes. Casting is a manufacturing process, which gives shape and size to a component of interest by pouring molten metal, which is in red hot state into a mould, which is designed such that its internal shape and size exactly match with the external shape and size of the component of interest. Casting is a very old art form that dates back thousands of years before the start of written history. Findings from the archaeological record show that the casting process was used more than 6000 years ago, or around 3000 BC. It is assumed that the moulds consisted of two pieces of pottery joined by a rope and featuring a hole to allow the molten metal to be poured into them. It is assumed that early hunting tools and weapons were made in this manner The Greeks and Romans made the casting process in artform to make bronze status, in which hollow wax has been used. Every component of a product was casted individually. The core of the mould was composed of clay and coated in wax. Next, a layer of clay was heated to melt the wax inside, and then the clay was heated once again to burn off any leftover wax. Melted metal was poured into the region where the wax had been removed once the mould was stable and ready, which is a process like contemporary investment casting. China started producing tools, bowls and many industrial items using casting around 1000 BCE. In specific, they produced farm tools and weapons. After several centuries, the casting process reached European counties to make gun, bullets, etc. With the advent of industrial revolution, the casting process became as a usual manufacturing process, what is seen today. Later, several metals, which are used in casting have been invented to produce high quality products with increased end of life for them. Over a period, metal casting underwent development. Casting procedures advanced quickly along with improvements in metal-heating and melting techniques. Gold was the first metal to be casted because of its low melting point and malleability. China made significant contributions to the development of casting when it discovered sand casting and iron, also referred to as pig iron.

3.1 Introduction
The different moulding machines are listed below.
• Thermoforming moulding
• Injection moulding
• Compression moulding
• Transfer moulding
• Extrusion moulding
• Blow moulding
• Rotational moulding
• Hydroforming
• Laminating
The melting furnaces, which feed molten metal to fill mould cavities are listed below.
• Cupola furnace
• Induction furnace
• Open hearth furnace
This chapter presents the different moulding machines and melting furnaces.
3.2 Thermoforming Moulding
To develop unique packaging solutions, thermoforming is the process of stretching a heated plastic sheet over a mould, then trimming, and assembling the design once the sheet has cooled as shown in Fig.3.1. The hot thermoplastic is stretched over the surface of the mould using the two thermoforming processes, viz. vacuum forming and pressure forming. A thermoforming machine is a sizable piece of industrial machinery that allows us to vacuum-form a plastic sheet onto an object as the sheet is being moulded. Thermoforming machines are used and benefited by a variety of businesses to efficiently package their products. The material used to produce parts by thermoforming machines is thermoforming plastic. Numerous thermoforming polymers are available for use in particular applications.

4.1 Introduction
There are special casting processes as listed below.
i. Shell casting
ii. Investment casting
iii. Ceramic mould casting
iv. Pressure diecasting
v. Centrifugal casting
vi. CO2 casting process
vii. Stir casting
viii. Squeeze casting
ix. Full mould casting
x. Magnetic casting
xi. Micro casting
4.2 Shell Casting
The complete aspect of shell casting has been already presented under shell pattern in Section 2.4.1.3. For the purpose of reinforcement, it is reproduced here. Sand that has been covered in resin is used as the mould in the casting process known as shell mould casting, or just shell moulding. After pouring molten metal into the mould’s cavity, the mould vaporizes to produce a hard shell. This process will have two or more patterns to give shape and size to the final product to be casted.
The steps of making shell mould are presented below.
1. In the case of two pieces of patterns, make each pattern using iron or steel.
2. A mould is made once the pattern has been made. In this stage, a lubricant is applied after both pattern components have been heated. After that, each pattern piece is placed at the top of a dump box which contains resin covered sand. Then the pattern will absorb the sand.
3. Invert the dump box to free the excess sand particles sticking the patten.

5.1 Introduction
A common method for combining metals in a wide range of applications is welding. Welding takes place in a variety of places, including factories and workshops, as well as outside on rural farms and construction sites. Basic welding techniques can be easily learnt, and the processes involved are quite straightforward to understand. The molecular joining of metals is called welding. When two or more pieces of metal are joined together uniformly such that the joint’s strength is greater than the combined strength of the individual components is known as a weld.
5.1.1 Key Terminologies of Welding
Four materials and other two elements are needed for welding, which are as listed below.
i. Metals
ii. Heat source/ flame
iii. Filler/ flux material
iv. Electrode
v. Air shield
vi. Coatings
To create a single piece of metal, the metals are heated to their melting point while being kept out of the air. A filler metal is then added to the heated area. It can be done under pressure or without pressure. In some cases, filler material need not be used. Air is used as a shield to cover the welding zone from oxidation.
5.1.1.1 Metals
Metals are the workpieces, which are to be joined. These metals may be similar or dissimilar. There are many situations wherein two or more workpieces are to be joined. Consider internal combustion engine in which valve timing gears are fixed over cam shaft. The fixing of the cam over the cam shaft is carried out by welding. Here, the workpieces are the cam and the cam shaft

6.1 Introduction
One of the various fusion welding techniques used to combine metals is arc welding. It melts and joins metals by producing a high temperature using an electric arc. An electric arc is created between a base metal and a consumable or non-consumable electrodede by a power source. The types of arc welding methods are listed below.
i. Gas shield tungsten arc welding
ii. Metal arc welding
iii. Submerged arc welding
iv. Gas shield metal arc welding
v. Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
vi. Electrode-Slag Welding (ESW)
vii. Electrode-Gas Welding (EGW)
viii. Arc Stud Welding (SW)
ix. Carbon Arc Welding (CAW)
x. Atomic Hydrogen Welding (AHW)
6.2 Gas Shield Tungstan arc Welding
An electric arc formed between a tungsten electrodede and the metal that needs to be joined starts the welding process. The arc melts the metal while protecting the weld from airborne impurities with a cloud of argon, helium gas, or carbon dioxide. A separate filler rod can be used to add additional filler metal. An inert gas, such as argon or helium, surrounds a non-consumable tungsten electrodede during the arc welding method known as tungsten inert gas welding (TIG). If more weld metal is needed, an additional filler rod can supply it. To prevent overheating and excessive erosion of the tungsten electrodede, a direct current is employed with the electrodede negatively charged.

    7.1 Introduction
By passing an electrical current through two pieces of plain metal, they can be joined together using resistance welding. The electrical resistance of the metals due to the contact resistance between them, and the electrical current combine to produce the required welding heat. The manufacturing sector frequently uses resistance welding, a type of welding, to join metal sheets and components. In order to create a weld, a high current must be passed through the metal combination to heat it up and eventually melt the metal at a localised points that are chosen based on the electrode and/or workpiece designs. To limit the contact area at the weld interfaces and, in certain cases, to forge the workpieces, a force is always provided prior to, during, and following the application of current. The resistance welding process is classified into the following types.
i. Resistance spot welding (RSW)
ii. Resistance seam welding (RSEW)
iii. Upset welding (UW)
iv. Projection welding (PW)
v. Percussion welding (PEW)
vi. Flash welding (FW)
7.2 Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)
The automotive and aviation industries make extensive use of resistance spot welding, or simply spot welding. Extremely low voltage and very high current are used in this kind of welding. A wide variety of metals, including copper (Cu), titanium (Ti), magnesium (Mg), aluminium (Al), and their alloys are welded by this welding method. RSW is typically used to join thin sheets of metal, either similar or different, in a lap joint form. A few drawbacks of RSW include electrode degradation, misalignment, voids, and cracking. RSW welding of thicker metal sheets is typically challenging due to the ease with which the heat flows in the surrounding metal.

8.1 Introduction
Every fusion welding procedure that uses a heat source capable of producing incredibly high weld input levels is known as high energy density welding. For welding, the density of the energy obtainable from a heat source is frequently more significant than the source’s absolute energy. Electron beam welding (EBW) and laser beam welding (LBW) are the two main categories of high energy density welding technologies. In both procedures, a very high-intensity beam is used as the heating source for the weld, and this beam’s energy is highly concentrated due to optical or electromagnetic lenses, respectively. These processes have an energy density of roughly 1010–1013 W/m2. The energy density of typical arc welding procedures is roughly 5 x108 W/m2. As fast-moving electrons in EBW and photons in LBW collide with the workpiece, their kinetic energy is converted into heat. This causes melting, vaporisation, and heating in a very small region. Due to non-uniform weld metal shrinkage or thermal contraction, penetration into the workpiece can be significant. This results in deep, thin, parallel-sided fusion welds with narrow heat-affected zones and little angular distortion. Since the electron beam welding is nearly always done autogenously, the joint fit needs to be flawless.
This welding is classified into the following types.
i. Plasma arc welding
ii. Electron Beam welding (EBW)
iii. Laser bean welding (LBW)
8.2 Plasma Arc Welding
An electric plasma arc and a non-consumable electrode are used in the fusion welding method known as plasma arc welding (PAW) to fuse metals together. The electrode is typically constructed of thoriated tungsten, just like in TIG. It is an excellent option for welding thin metals and producing deep, narrow welds because of its distinctive torch design, which provides a more focused beam than TIG welding. Compared to conventional procedures, plasma welding is frequently used to weld tough metals like aluminium, stainless steel, and others. This method, like oxy-fuel welding, can also cut metal (plasma cutting), which gives fabricators and manufacturers another useful tool.

9.1 Introduction
In continuation to a comprehensive presentation of the fusion welding techniques in Chapters 5, 6, 7 and 8, this chapter presents advanced welding/ joining techniques, which are as listed below.
i. Cold metal transfer
ii. Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM)
iii. Thermal spraying
iv. Thermit welding
v. Ultrasonic welding
vi. Friction welding
vii. Diffusion bonding
viii. Soldering
ix. Brazing
x. Adhesive bonding
9.2 Cold Metal Transfer
A subset of gas metal arc welding is called Cold Metal Transfer (CMT). When it detects a short circuit, it reduces the weld current and retracts the weld wire, which causes a drop-by-drop deposit of weld material. The cold metal transfer was designed for thin materials and necessitates tight weld parameter control. Cold Metal Transfer combines a cutting-edge wire feed technology with high-speed digital management to create a regulated manner of material deposition with little heat input. In order to achieve enough energy to melt a tip of filler wire as well as the base material, the wire feed rate and cycle arcing phase are regulated. The cold metal transfer process has two primary features, viz. the occurrence of a short circuit in a stable and controlled manner, and the point of short circuit with low current correlating to a low heat input

10.1 Introduction
Many of the industrial components/ products are produced by forging corresponding workpieces. Carbon steel, alloy steel, tool steel, aluminium, stainless steel, duplex steel, copper, and brass are among the materials that can be forged. Many factors will cause the forging process to vary. For example, the forging operation for titanium will differ from that for stainless steel. Steel is a material that can be formed into a wide variety of items when heated to high temperatures, around 1200–1300 degrees Celsius. The metal’s grains lengthen in the direction of flow during the industrial forging process. The metal’s hardness is significantly increased as a result. The flow lines in the completed component will lie where the component will experience the most stress due to well-designed forging. The forging is classified into cold forging and hot forging.
10.2 Stress-Strain Curve of Metal Forming Process
When a metal is applied with a stress (force per unit area), it experiences a strain. The formula for the stress that is applied on a metal component is given below.

11.1 Introduction 
By passing a metal piece through a gap between two rollers that are revolving in opposite directions (clockwise or anticlockwise), metal can be shaped into a thin, long sheet by the process known as rolling. The working piece of the material to be created should have a thickness smaller than the gap between the two rollers. Rolling is used to convert more than 95% of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys into forms that are suitable for use. Rolling of metals gives the shapes, viz. plate, sheet, strip, foil, and various sections such as rail, beam, channel, angle, bar, rod, and seamless pipe. By allowing the material to travel through the space between two revolving cylindrical rolls, considerable compressive stress is applied to the material throughout the rolling process, which results in permanent deformation. The rolls are kept at a constant distance from one another. They can have grooves or flat. Using an electrical drive system (motor, gearbox, spindle, and couplings), the rolls are rotated in the opposite direction. The input material enters the gap between the rolls from one end and exits the other end with a decreased cross-section. The roll gap area remains less than the cross-sectional area of the input material (rolling stock), depending on the direction of rotation of the rolls. In most cases, the material must be passed through the revolving rolls multiple times to produce the final shape that is desired. The two rolls are brought closer to one another on each pass, or the material is allowed to travel through various sets of roll gaps with decreasing cross-sectional area. The assembly of rolls mounted on bearings is held in bearing blocks, also known as chocks, which are held between the spaces between two cast frames, also known as housings. The complete setup is called rolling mill stand. A rolling mill, also known as a rolling plant, is made up of one or more rolling stands along with other relevant and essential machinery for producing final rolled goods from a single or comparable class of raw materials.

12.1 Introduction
This chapter presents topics on drawing, stretching and extrusion under bulk transformation process. Tensile forces are used in the manufacturing process of drawing to extend materials, viz. plastic, glass, and metal. The material takes on the required thickness and shape as it is drawn, or dragged. Sheet metal drawing, and wire, bar and tube drawing are the two categories of drawings. Drawing is one of the most remarkable shaping techniques used in sheet metal stamping. During the drawing process, a blank’s surface area is forced into a new shape by controlled metal flow due to stress. As the metal enters the cavity, flow happens. Basically, drawing occurs when the blank’s exterior profile changes during the metal’s formation. One of the complicated yet most efficient methods for forming sheet metal is drawing. Because tension is involved in the drawing process, some stretching will occur, but the goal is to form the sheet metal with as little stretching as possible. Tension and metal thinning during the stretching process cause a blank’s surface area to increase. Do not mistake stretching for drawing. The blank changes shape as the metal flows through the die during drawing. The blank edge does not move inward during stretching. Except for the fact that stretching dies, in contrast to most embossing dies, use a high-pressure binder to limit and stop metal flow. Like a drawing pad, a binder purposefully prevents the metal from flowing inward. Stretching dies are used in the production of automotive parts, viz. fenders, roofs, and hoods. Extrusion is the process of forcing material through a die with the desired cross-section to generate components with a fixed cross-sectional profile.

13.1 Introduction
Any metal that is shaped into thin, malleable sheets is called sheet metal. The sheets come in a variety of predetermined thicknesses, known as gauges, and are made of materials ranging from titanium to brass. Although sheets can vary in thickness from fractions of a millimeter to several inches, most are typically less than ¼ inch thick. In sheet metal forming, different techniques are used to exert force on a sheet of metal to plastically change it into the required shape and changing its geometry instead of removing any material. Because sheet metal can be bent or stretched into a wide range of intricate shapes, it can be used to create sophisticated structures that are both very strong and use little material. The most economical forming method available today for producing large quantities of parts is sheet metal forming. On the other end of the spectrum, it can be manually operated in metal workshops for small series items or fully automated in factories. It is a flexible, reliable, and superior process that produces precise metal parts with little material waste. Sheet metal forming components are everywhere in our daily lives, from metal cans to protective housing for hardware. Sheet metal process is an extensive cold working procedure that involves shearing, punching/cutting, folding, riveting, splicing, and moulding such as vehicle bodies using metal sheets that are typically less than 6mm in thickness.
13.2 Sheet Metal Characteristics
The characteristics of the sheet metal are as listed below.
i. Because of its ductility, sheet metal may be shaped into a wide variety of shapes without shattering or cracking.
ii. Because it allows the material to be bent, stretched, and stamped throughout the production process, its malleability is essential for manufacturing.
iii. Another crucial element is the thickness of the sheet metal, which can vary from incredibly thin to several centimeters. Typically, a gauge number is used to indicate the thickness of a sheet metal. A lower gauge number denotes a thicker material and a higher gauge number denotes a thinner material. Sheet metal can be used for a wide range of purposes, from heavyduty machinery parts to lightweight electronic enclosures.

14.1 Introduction
The other topics of the metal forming are as listed below.
a. Stretch forming operation
b. Formability of sheet metal
c. Test methods
These topics are presented in this chapter.
14.2 Stretch Forming Operation
A sheet metal is simultaneously stretched and curved over a die during the stretch forming process to create big shaped parts. Stretch forming is done using a stretch press, where jaws are gripped firmly to fix a sheet metal along its edges. To stretch the sheet, the grasping jaws are individually coupled to a carriage that is drawn by a hydraulic or pneumatic force. A stretch form block, also known as a form die, is the tooling utilized in this procedure. It is a solid contoured piece that the sheet metal will be pressed against. The most common type of stretch press is vertically orientated with the form die situated on a press table , which will be elevated by a hydraulic ram into the sheet. Tensile stresses build and the sheet plastically deforms into a new shape when the form die is pressed into the firmly gripped sheet. The sheet is pulled horizontally around the form die by the gripping jaws of a horizontal stretch press, which mounts the form die sideways on a stationary press table

15.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the working principles and applications of special forming processes. The different special forming processes are as listed below.
i. Hydro forming
ii. Rubber pad forming
iii. Multi-point die forming
iv. Warm/hot forming
v. Solid granular medium forming
vi. Metals pinning
vii. Explosive forming
viii. Magnetic pulse forming
ix. Peen-forming
x. Super plastic-forming
xi. Micro forming
xii. Incremental forming
15.2 Hydro Forming
The word “hydroforming” describes the metal forming procedures where the material blank is deformed by hydraulic pressure. There are difficulties with sealing, pressurization schedule, anticontamination in the pressure system, and cleaning the workpiece and equipment after direct contact between the pressurized fluid and the blank material. In certain instances, the necessary hydroforming pressure may surpass 350 MPa, contingent upon the setup of the process and the thickness of the material. Hydroforming procedures are divided into two categories, viz. sheet metal hydroforming and tube hydroforming, depending on the geometry of the blank.
15.2.1 Sheet Metal Hydro forming
When it comes to tooling, sheet metal hydro forming is less complicated than typical sheet metal stamping. Only one side of the tooling, typically the lower side needs to be created for the sheet metal hydro forming process. The hydro forming

16.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the definition of plastic, its types and characteristics. For each type of plastic, its molecular structure, properties, advantages and disadvantages and applications are presented.
16.1.1 Origin of Plastic
Charles Goodyear discovered vulcanization, a process that increased rubber’s elasticity and resilience, in 1839, which resulted with the discovery of plastic. One of the earliest known polymer combinations was the creation of Charles Goodyear. Celluloid, or Parkesine was discovered in 1855 by Alexander Parkes. This substance is a blend of cellulose nitrate and camphor/lime. Additionally, it was the first thermoplastic to become rigid when cold and flexible when heated. In the years that followed, several noteworthy discoveries were made, such as the separation of PVC in 1835 by the French physicist Victor Regnault, the invention of the first synthetic polymer (or industrial plastic) in 1869 by John Wesley Hyatt, and the introduction of transparent food packaging in 1900 by Edward Brandenberger.
16.1.2 Plastic and its Constituents
Plastic is a class of materials that is utilised in electronics, construction, medical equipment, packaging, etc., because of its extreme versatility. This synthetic or semi-synthetic material can be moulded using a variety of methods. It is created from petrochemicals or natural materials like cellulose or starch. The basic components are chemically altered to create polymers, which are lengthy sequences of molecules. Then, these polymers can be moulded using blow, extrusion, or injection moulding techniques to create a variety of shapes. Another name for some plastics is resins. Based on their chemical makeup, plastics can be divided into two primary categories, viz. thermoplastic and thermoset/ thermosetting plastic. The thermoplastics can be moulded, melted, and remoulded repeatedly. Thermoset/ thermosetting plastic cannot be heated again. Polymers come in a variety of forms, both synthetic and natural. Among the materials most frequently used in the creation of plastic are coal, natural gas, cellulose, starch, crude oil, and salt. Plastics are mostly made by two processes that call for certain

17.1 Introduction
Pouring liquid plastic into a specific container or mould and allowing it to solidify into the desired shape is known as plastic moulding. After that, a variety of uses for these plastic moulds are possible.
The different types of plastic moulding/ forming processes are listed below.
i. Injection moulding
ii. Compression moulding
iii. Extrusion moulding
iv. Transfer moulding
v. Blow moulding
vi. Rotational moulding
vii. Film blowing
viii. Vacuum bag forming
ix. Thermoforming
x. Bonding of thermoplastics
17.2 Injection Moulding
Using a pre-made mould and plastic resin, thermoplastic injection moulding is a manufacturing technique that produces completely functional items. It falls into a few subcategories, like fast injection moulding, which is best used for finetuning prototypes before approving a product for mass production. Plastic resin of any engineering grade can be used for thermoplastic injection moulding. General resins are used to make early prototypes or less important portions of a product, whereas engineering grade resins are usually employed to construct final prototypes before to manufacture. The term “general resins” refers to materials such as TPE, ABS, nylon, PET, polypropylene, and polyethylene. Reels of engineering grade include ultem, valox, noryl, and lexan. Product developers can experiment with various materials and surface treatments for their products because of the wide variety of plastic resins that can be processed via thermoplastic injection moulding.

Introduction
In recent years, global attention has increasingly focused on the interconnection between health, happiness, and sustainable development, recognizing their collective role in enhancing quality of life. Often viewed as personal endeavors these elements drive societal well-being and contribute to long-term sustainability. In this context, rooted in ancient India, yoga has become vital in promoting individual wellness and broader social progress. Yoga offers holistic benefits that address well-being across multiple dimensions—physical fitness, mental clarity emotional balance, and social cohesion—making it an invaluable approach to fostering contentment and sustainable living. Yoga integrates mindfulness minimalism, and responsible consumption, aligning with global initiatives to address environmental issues and advance sustainable development goals (SDGs). This chapter explores the transformative potential of yoga in promoting health, happiness, and sustainability. By reviewing its role in physical and psychological well-being, social development, and ecological consciousness, the chapter aims to demonstrate how yoga can serve as a personal wellness practice and a contributor to global sustainable development efforts. Through this examination, we can better understand the broader impacts of yoga, highlighting its capacity to support individual transformation while contributing to a more equitable and sustainable world.
Yoga: Historical and Philosophical Foundations
Yoga has its roots in ancient India, dating back over 5,000 years, which was developed as a system of physical, mental, and spiritual practices aimed at achieving harmony and self-realization (Sengupta, 2012). The term “yoga” is derived from the Sanskrit root yuj, which translates to “to unite” or “to join.” This signifies the interconnectedness of the body, mind, and spirit. The philosophical foundations of yoga are laid out in texts such as Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita where yoga is described as a path to achieving balance, clarity, and peace through discipline, meditation, and ethical living. One of the significant branches of this system is Hatha Yoga, which emphasizes physical postures (asanas), breathing control (pranayama), and mental concentration. Hatha yoga is deeply rooted in ancient Indian texts such as the Hatha Yoga Pradipika by Svatmarama and the Gheranda Samhita, where it is described as a tool for mastering body and mind. While traditional yoga aimed at spiritual liberation, Hatha yoga was mainly concerned with physical and mental control, often seen as preparatory for more profound meditative practices. In the modern world, yoga has evolved into a global wellness practice, emphasizing physical postures (asanas), breathing techniques (pranayama) and meditation. This adaptation has made yoga accessible to a diverse audience including those seeking physical health, mental clarity, or spiritual growth. Yoga’s core values of mindfulness, non-attachment, and ethical living continue to offer relevant solutions to contemporary challenges, such as mental health, sustainability and social responsibility. Its holistic nature makes it a valuable tool for fostering individual well-being while promoting broader ecological and societal harmony.

Introduction 
Sustainability refers to the ability to maintain a balanced and healthy equilibrium by addressing economic, social, and environmental demands over time. Sustainable development is a broad and evolving concept that aims to meet present needs without jeopardizing the ability of future generations to meet theirs. It seeks to balance short-term progress with long-term viability. The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the Global Goals, are a set of 17 goals and 169 targets that all UN Member States aim to achieve by 2030. SDG 3, which emphasizes ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being for all at all ages, places a strong focus on health. Within SDG 3, reducing maternal mortality and decreasing neonatal and child mortality are key priorities, represented by Targets 3.1 and 3.2, respectively. The global goal for SDG 3.1 is to lower the maternal mortality ratio (MMR) to fewer than 70 per 100,000 live births by 2030. For individual countries, a supplementary target is set to reduce their national MMR to below 140 per 100,000 live births. A nation’s progress is fundamentally tied to the health and well-being of its mothers, which is a crucial factor in achieving equitable resource distribution, reducing poverty, and promoting sustainable development. Tragically, approximately 536,000 women die each year from maternal health complications, with 99% of these deaths occurring in developing nations. India, contributing about 25% of global maternal deaths, faces a critical challenge, with around 136,000 maternal deaths occurring annually. The country has set an ambitious goal to reduce its MMR to below 100 deaths per 100,000 live births. To address these issues and support sustainability, Reproductive and Child Health (RCH) indicators play an essential role in monitoring maternal and child health (MCH) outcomes. These indicators include measures such as immunization coverage, institutional delivery rates, home delivery rates, and antenatal care coverage. By tracking these metrics policymakers can assess the effectiveness of maternal health services and identify areas that require improvement. Utilizing RCH indicators to inform policies and programs contributes to better health outcomes for mothers and children and helps reduce mortality rates, which aligns with the objectives of SDG 3. Certain regions of India have made notable strides in improving MCH. For example, the northeastern state of Assam saw significant improvements in RCH indicators between 2010 and 2015. During this time, the rate of institutional deliveries increased substantially ensuring more women had access to safe childbirth services. The government has also strengthened maternal health care by implementing various MCH programs, including the RCH initiatives and other flagship schemes.

1. Introduction
Early childhood (0-6 years) is the most important period in a child’s life; it is during this period that the foundations for the child’s cognitive, social, emotional, physical and mental development are laid. As a result, the Ministry of Women and Child Development implemented several programs aimed at the welfare, development and protection of children and pregnant women. One such program is The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) program, which began on October 2, 1975. In India, ICDS is the most important government intervention for reducing maternal and child malnutrition and it has grown to become the world’s largest program of its kind. The ICDS aims to provide an integrated package of early childhood services in order to lay a solid foundation for the development of the nation’s human resources. The ICDS scheme is intended to be both preventive and developmental in nature. ICDS gives hope to millions of vulnerable women and children by assisting and supporting them during times of food insecurity and rapid growth. Because of its nationwide coverage, this program has all of the necessary structures in place and provides nutritional safety for the most vulnerable and poorest of the poor. This is a one-of-a-kind program with no counterpart anywhere in the world, in terms of scope and coverage.
Objectives of the ICDS Program
The following are the objectives of the ICDS scheme:
1. To improve the nutritional and health status of children in the age group of 0-6 years
2. To lay the foundations for the proper psychological physical and social development of the child
3. To reduce mortality morbidity, malnutrition and school dropout
4. To achieve an effective coordination of policy and implementation among the various departments working for the promotion of child development
5. To enhance the capability of the mother and the nutritional needs of the child through proper nutrition and health education.

Introduction 
SDG 3 emphasizes good health and well-being for people globally. In this chapter, we will focuses on the health and well-being of the Indigenous Khasi Tribe living in Meghalaya, India. The Khasi Tribe comprises 7 sub-tribes, commonly known as ‘Seven Huts’ or ‘HynniewTrep, HyniewSkum’ in the Khasi language. The 7 sub tribes are Khynriam, Pnar, Bhoi, War, Maram, Lyngngam and Dikko. Although the culture, tradition, and beliefs are shared among all subtribes, earning them the common name Khasi Tribe, there are slight differences in terms of topography. Some sub-tribes live in sloping or steep mountainous areas, engaging primarily in forestry and horticulture, while others reside in plain areas, where they cultivate agricultural crops. As an indigenous group, the Khasi community follows certain beliefs and practices related to health and well-being. The Khasi tribe is a matrilineal society where women hold great responsibility at home and in the community. Some researchers have acknowledged that the Khasi tribe is one of the tribes in India with a better status in terms of literacy rates and nutritional status. (D Agrahar- Murugkar, 2004). Approximately 83% of the Khasi tribe are agrarian. The main food items that boost their immune system and make them strong and healthy include rice, dal, potato, tomato, bamboo shoot, pumpkin, green vegetables, citrus fruits, and meat (beef, pork, fish, eggs, and dry fish), which they cook in their own indigenous style. The majority of them are non-vegetarian. A common stimulant is betel nut, which has been used since ancient times as a social mediator to connect with others and form friendships. The Khasi people are hardworking; enjoy games and sports, and traditional music. In terms of social well-being, the Khasi tribe has a strong sense of “we feeling”, supporting one another, following ethical and moral instincts, and respecting one another. They believe in the spirits of Mother Nature (ki blei, ki basa). To maintain strong bonding and enhance Khasi Tribe sentiments, various festivals are celebrated every year, such as Shad Suk Mynsiem, Shad Nongkrem, Seng Kut Snem, Pom Blang, and Beh Diengkhlam. They also pay homage to freedom fighters who have died for the Khasi land, such as Tirot Sing, Kiang Nongbah, and Phan Nonglait. Following the legacy of these freedom fighters, various leaders are heading civil groups that monitor the performance of government administration and other welfare states for common social well-being.

Introduction 
Life’s unpredictability is a common thread that weaves through our experiences, prompting the use of various societal mechanisms to help us navigate the uncertainties we face (Lenhart, 2020). On a personal level, a typical strategy for managing this uncertainty includes utilizing financial instruments, commonly known as insurance (Ito & Kono, 2010). Today a diverse range of items is now eligible for insurance, encompassing aspects such as health, travel, and personal belongings, typically categorized as health, travel, and property insurance respectively. In India, the recognition of life insurance is prevalent, but with the increase in literacy and financial awareness, a growing number of individuals and families are starting to grasp the importance of health insurance (Kumar & Duggirala, 2021). Following this cause, the third goal of sustainable development that highlights the significance of ensuring and promoting healthy lives is worth mentioningtowards the effort of massification of the health insurance. By integrating finance, the third Sustainable Development Goal emphasizes a crucial initiative aimed at achieving universal health coverage for every citizen, which encompasses state health insurance for all individuals(Pauly, 1994). This initiative aims to equip citizens with the financial resilience needed to navigate an uncertain future, particularly concerning health-related challenges. In the context of health insurance frameworks, understanding the accessibility of initiatives aimed at the bottom of the pyramid is crucial for realizing universal health coverage towards achieving the SDGs’ (Pablos-Mendez, Cavanaugh, & Ly, 2016). The effectiveness of accessibility is intricately linked to the level of awareness that exists within the community. As the landscape of health insurance is ever-dynamic, understanding its intricacies will be crucial moving forward.For a thorough exploration, a researcher should have a wide-ranging grasp of the discipline, including theoretical, contextual, and methodological perspectives. Taking this into consideration, present chapter aims to explore a theoretical aspect of the review through a bibliometric analysis (Faruk, Rahman, Heliyon, & 2021, n.d.) of the literature spanning from 1984 to 2024 (Lebek, Uffen, Neumann, Hohler, & Breitner, 2014). This theoretical perspective will guide us in exploring how to reflect on the answers effectively. Theories illustrate methods for examining and establishing a structure for comprehending occurrences (Mahajan, n.d.). Furthermore, the theory clarifies how phenomena connect with the practical world, providing a distinct path and perspective for the researcher. This upcoming section will outline the reasoning behind this study, which entails performing a bibliometric analysis of the literature through the PRISMA Protocol (Moher et al., 2009), succeeded by a comprehensive text analysis of the chosen literature. The next section provides a concise overview of the theories explored within the realm of health insurance literature. This review adopts the PRISMA protocol (Moher et al., 2009) to scrutinize the articles to be included in the review. The protocol involves two phases of scrutinization, which consist of identification and screening. In the identification phase, I selected the Scopus register (Malanski, Dedieu, & Schiavi, 2021) and collected a database of 16797 articles. I gathered this database based on the “Article titles” criterion, including the keywords “Health Insurance” or “Health” and “Insurance” from 1984 to 2024, encompassing 50 years of literature. The year selection provides a timeline of the 50 years of academic scholarship related to the subset of health insurance as a research topic. After applying the language filter of English, duplication, and automation tools to this dataset, I were able to obtain 10961 articles for the subsequent screening stage. In this stage of screening, I have used the filter of subject area by selecting the subject area of Social Sciences; Business, Management, and Accounting; Decision Science; Economics, Econometrics, and Finance, which leads the collection of the 2580

Introduction 
There is a significant transformation undergoing in the health insurance sector, driven by technological advancements, shift in the regulatory frameworks and uplifting the consumer expectations towards the sector. There is a rise in the healthcare costs in recent times and as a result the insurers are increasingly Assistant Professor, Department of Business Administration, Girijananda Chowdhury University, Assam challenged to provide sustainable and equitable coverage to ensure the quality of treatments of the patients. This evolving landscape health insurance claims a comprehensive understanding of the upcoming patterns and trends to shape the future of health insurance. The digital health technologies have evolved recent developments in the form of telemedicine, artificial intelligence and blockchain etc are continuously contributing as how insurance providers assess risk, deliver services, and engage with policyholders. These innovations not only enhance operational effectiveness but also empower consumers to play a more vital role in their healthcare decision making. Thereafter, the importance of the value-based care becomes more remarkable and the insurers are exploring new models that focus upon patient outcomes over volume, aligning incentives between providers and payers. Additionally, the technological advancements along with the demographic shifts that includes aging population and the increasing rate of chronic diseases are changing the direction of health insurance. The service providers must transform their plans and policies to meet the diversified needs of a changing population that significantly prioritizes personalized and accessible care solutions. Since the emergence of alternative insurance models such as on-demand coverage, direct primary care, and self-insured employer plans etc., the industry navigates these changes and results a shift away from traditional insurance practices. Health insurance significantly plays a vital role achieving Sustainable Development Goal 3 (SDG 3), aiming to secure healthcare and encourage well-being along with poverty reduction and economic growth of the country. By providing financial safeguard against high-cost medical treatments, health insurance minimises the risk of destructive health expenditures which may lead to positioned the individuals and their families into the line of poverty. As the people in India is having access to better healthcare services, the disparities in healthcare services can be reduced and the equality of healthcare services among all the sections in the society can be attained. It boosts the awareness to access the essential healthcare services that includes maternal health, precautionary care and treatment for non-communicable diseases. However, health insurance stimulates sustainable financing for healthcare with an assurance of pooling the funds equitably to cover the needs of various class of people to enhance the attainment of SDG 3 targets and overall sustainability of global health.

Introduction 
The evolution of health care since 1950s has been attributed to artificial intelligence (AI). Remarkable advances in the health sector are being made particularly after the years, following 2010, thanks to AI technology. The significance of AI as a game-changer in healthcare has tremendously grown together, with its accompanying range of challenges, opportunities, and reward. There is increasing utilization of AI across public health activities including biomedical research with its capacityto reduce medical errors and improveaccess to care. The efficiency and ability of AI to analyse large volumes of data in different medical fields so as to identify diseases and guide treatment plans has turned it into an area of significant impact in clinical decision-making. Machine learning as well as data analytics are examples of AI technologies employed in monitoring, diagnosis, treatment and measurement of risks/benefits thereby transforming various healthcare processes. It is revolutionizing medical practices in several areas such as diagnosis, treatment, rehabilitation and surgical operations [Tagliaferri et al., 2020]. Studies have found that, the use of AI has improved patient outcomes and simplified management duties, resulting to an efficient health service delivery system. As the influence of AI continues to grow, understanding its implications, benefits, and challenges becomes essential for healthcare professionals and policymakers alike.

Introduction 
Education stands as a fundamental pillar in societal progress and individual development, serving as the cornerstone for a nation’s growth and prosperity. Within the realm of education, the nature of allocation and utilization of public expenditure represent a critical aspect that profoundly influences the quality, accessibility and inclusivity of educational opportunities. As nations navigate through economic, social and technological transformations, the strategic allocation of financial resources towards education emerges as a key determinant in shaping the educational landscape. Today, schools and students are dividing into a world where computers, tablets and the internet play a big role in how we learn. This is a new way of learning called digital education, a cornerstone of the modernization in today’s world. The imperative for digital education arises from the necessity to equip learners with the skills and competencies required to navigate an increasingly interconnected and technology-driven world.Digital tools and technologies offer interactive and engaging learning experiences that cater to diverse learning styles and enable personalized learning systems dedicated to individual’s needs and preferences. Historically, the Northeastern regions had limited access to formal educationdue to its remote and geographically challenging terrain. Colonial rule in India introduced some educational institutions. After India gained independence in 1947, efforts were made to expand education in the region. Various government initiatives, policies and programs like the Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) and Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) were implemented to enhance education in Northeast India, aimed to provide universal elementary education and improve secondary infrastructure. In recent years, there have been endeavors by both the central and state governments to bridge the educational gap The dawn of the internet era in the 1990s marked a pivotal moment, fostering an environment conducive to the integration of technology into education. Fast forward to the 21st century, the government initiatives like Make in India, Digital India, SWAYAM and National Digital Literacy Mission (NDLM) have proved to be crucial evidence in the significance of digitalization in education.

Introduction 
The ancient educational systems of renowned universities not only advanced knowledge across various disciplines but also significantly influenced the economic and social structures of their times. Education serves as a gateway to liberation and development, providing individuals with a wealth of opportunities. Conversely, a lack of education limits one’s ability to pursue personal and professional aspirations. In the educational environment, the initial relationship a child forms is with their teacher. When teachers understand their students, it fosters strong relationships, effective communication, innovative learning approaches, and capacity building. Since students spend a significant portion of their day at school, mutual respect and tolerance between students and teachers are essential for a productive learning environment. Over recent years, the education system has evolved rapidly, incorporating new teaching methods and strategies as alternatives to traditional models. However, traditional views often assert that “learners must submit themselves to teachers” (Menges, 1977, p.5), implying that teacher authority is crucial for student learning. Hurt, Scott, and McCroskey (1978) argued that a certain degree of teacher authority is always present in the classroom, and its usage tends to reinforce the need for more control. This perspective highlighted the critical role of the classroom as a space for students’ educational success (Anderson & Burns, 1989; Borich, 1988; Fraser & Walberg, 1991; Walberg, 1968). Positive teacher-student relationships are essential for fostering a sense of belonging and encouraged cooperative participation in classroom activities (Hughes & Chen, 2011, p.278). Such relationships not only engage students in learning but also enhance their holistic development, social skills, and confidence. As we know, historical institutions such as Takshila and Nalanda exemplify ancient centers of learning that combined theoretical and practical education. Takshila, located in present-day Pakistan, was one of the earliest centers of higher learning in ancient India, offering diverse subjects including medicine, engineering, astrology, and statecraft. Nalanda, in present-day Bihar, was a prominent center for Buddhist learning, focusing on philosophy, logic, and practical subjects like agriculture and technology. These ancient educational hubs were pivotal in advancing knowledge and contributing to the economic and intellectual development of their societies. The principles of vocational education and holistic development emphasized in the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 align with these historical practices (Makam, 2022). Effective implementation of NEP 2020 requires a fresh approach through comprehensive teacher training and rigorous evaluation of expectations and feedback focused on Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG4) is focused upon to create a relation with ancient practices.

Introduction
Education and Its Evolution
Education is a process of learning, which involves both formal and informal modes of learning, which transforms the behaviour, skills, knowledge attitudes, and beliefs of the learner. For this reason, it is more deliberate than other education activities since it is a deliberate effort to create learning in a bid to achieve set goals and objectives. Ordinarily, education is characterized by a systematic learning system that is complemented by curricula and instructional materials in different disciplines. This includes talking and explaining, discussing and questioning, performing and observing so as to reach individual students. Communication is also considered as necessary as education is a process of interconnecting people, exchanging information, and learning how to deal with society members. It also develops critical skills such as analysis and developing insights, due to its capacity to offer information to be analyzed, find solutions and then make sound decisions. Education implies character building and it shapes people into responsible members of society. Education also fosters a construct of perpetuity learning which in this case is strengths toward self and career. There is the principle of non-selectiveness as one of the basic principles of education, as education must be provided to all so that all students should be given an equal opportunity. Learners’ understanding and progress can be measured therefore, assessment and evaluation were part of the program to ensure that teaching strategies can be improved. In addition, it has a 96 | Sustainable Development Goals, Health & Education sociocultural function of passing on a culture from one generation to another, and thus preserving social and cultural development and growth. In its strictest sense education is learning as it is getting acquainted with information as well as has the added dimension of moulding positive character in the learners so that they and society can be the better for it. From antiquity to the present, education has undergone tremendous change, having a huge impact on the advancement of society. When education was first developed in ancient communities, it took the form of apprenticeships, oral traditions, and storytelling to impart cultural values, religious convictions, and useful survival skills. For the elite, it was frequently reserved, preventing access for the general public and preserving social hierarchies. A teacher-centered approach limited student interaction and critical thinking, and the curriculum prioritized memorization and rote learning with a focus on mythology and societal responsibilities. In comparison, the goal of contemporary education is to develop students’ ability to think critically, be creative, and solve problems in a formal, structured manner. Regardless of one’s background, access to it is considered a fundamental right that fosters inclusivity and social fairness. The curriculum’s diversity promotes inquiry and discovery by including technology, the arts, and the sciences. A variety of student-centered, modern teaching techniques are used to improve critical thinking and participation. Education is now a key factor in social and economic development as a result of this change, encouraging creativity and producing knowledgeable citizens who take an active role in solving global issues. After all, if education in the past served to uphold hierarchical institutions, education today aims to dismantle obstacles and promote equality in society.