eChapters

Flowers symbolize beauty, purity, peace and love. These are intricately associated with social beliefs and no social function is complete without the use of flowers; especially in a country like India, where it is a popular saying that flowers are associated with man from birth till death. Floriculture can be defined as a specialized branch of horticulture which deals not only with the cultivation of flowers, foliage, climbers, trees, shrubs, cacti, succulents, etc., but also with their marketing and production of value-added products from them.

Floriculture is increasingly regarded as a viable diversification from the traditional field crops due to higher returns per unit area and increasing habit of “saying it with flowers”. Flowers play a cardinal role in human behaviour and culture, bringing tranquility and peace of mind. From a symbol of love, flowers have transformed into an industry, generating both income as well as employment. India is blessed with a diversity of agroclimatic conditions prevailing in different regions of the country ensuring production of almost all the ornamental crops through out the year. Floriculture in India is a dynamic and expanding industry recording impressive annual growth rate.

The floriculture industry comprises of:

1. The florist trade traditional and contemporary cut flowers and cut foliage, both fresh and dried and value-added products like bouquets, floral baskets, flower arrangements and garlands.
2. The plant nursery for propagation and supply of plant material including tissue culture plants, seeds, bulbs, corms and other propagated material.
3. Plant rental service for supply of house plants on annual rent for a specific period.
4. Flower perfume and gulkand.

As a result of political changes in India, many entrepreneurs are changing to floricultural activities, which have become a high priority for the Indian government. Due to availability of sufficient winter and summer sunshine, high temperature, good soil fertility, good water quality, different climatic zones for different type of products and low labour and investment costs, India has great potential for floriculture. In the flower industry, significant changes are occurring in the competitive relationships worldwide. European integration, democratization in eastern Europe and the liberalization of world trade in the context of the GATT negotiations will have consequences on international trade. A number of traditional markets are displaying signs of saturation while, on the other hand, new countries are trying to get their place on the market. At the same time, we see new developing markets and in some parts of the world (USA, Japan) it is expected that per capita consumption will go up. Enormous genetic diversity, versatile human resources and varied agro-climate offers India unique scope for diversification not explored yet fully.

Livestock farms

The veterinarians can start their own livestock farms with their vast technical knowledge; they can infuse scientific management techniques in their own farms. In the WTO (World Trade Organisation) era, GMP (Good Manufacturing Practices) and SPS (Sanitory and Phytosanitory) measures are of great importance for export of livestock commodities, as the emphasis in international trade is on quality and food safety. If veterinarians start their own scientifically managed livestock enterprise, they can exploit this opportunity. Further, practicing proven scientific management techniques will improve productivity of animals that would lead to overall quantitative and qualitative improvement of livestock sector.

What is an Average ?

The word “average” is used in everyday life to describe where the middle number of a data set is. It’s the typical number you would except to find in a series of numbers. In statistics, the average is called the “arithmetic mean” usually just shortened to the mean. Both the average and the mean use the same formula :

Avg = total sum of all the numbers/ number of items in the set.

In other word, to find the average, add up all of the numbers in the set, and then divide by however many items you have. Let’s say you have 5, 10, and 15. Add them all up to get 5 + 10 + 15 = 30, then divide by 3(the number of items). The answer is 30/3 = 10.

In probability and statistics, you’ll see the following formula used

(AE; Epidemic Tremor; Infectious Avian Encephalomyelitis)

AE is a viral infection of chickens, turkeys, pheasants and cortunix quail characterized in young birds by ataxia progressing to paralysis and, usually, by tremors of the head and neck. Infected adults usually show no signs. AE is world wide in distribution.

• Avian Inflammation

Inflammation is a process which begins following a sublethal injury to tissue and ends with complete healing or death. It is characterized by five cardinal signs. Cardinal signs of inflammation are:

• Redness

• Heat

• Swelling

• Pain

• Loss of function

• Inflammation is beneficial in most of cases expect

• In prolonged or unending process

• In inflammation of immunological origin i.e. hypersensitivity and autoimmunity.

• It provides basic foundation of pathogenesis and pathology.

• It is now said that immunity is the resistance of body, while inflammation is the process by which the immune mechanism are implemented.

• The basis of inflammation remains same be it mammal or birds. For details, one can refer the chapter inflammation and heading in book “Illustrated Veterinary Pathology”. However, there are some differences in reaction in birds which are briefly listed below:

AI is a viral disease affecting the respiratory, enteric or nervous system of many kinds of birds. The most virulent form is an acute, generalized disease characterized in poultry by a short course and extremely high mortality.

Avian influenza (AI) is a listed disease of the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) that has become a disease of great concern for both animal and human health. Avian influenza (AI) or 'bird flu' is an infectious disease of birds ranging from a mild to a severe form of illness. It is caused by influenza A virus under the family Orthomyxoviridae. It is an enveloped virus with two types of surface projections haemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N). The haemagglutinin is a rod shaped homotrimer which agglutinates RBCs and neuraminidase is a mushroom shaped homotetramer which releases the virus from cells because of its sialidase activity. There are 17 different H antigens (H1 to H17) and 10 neuraminidase antigens (N1 to N10). The virus also contains 8 single stranded negative sense RNA segments each of which encodes for a protein. Avian influenza virus is generally limited to poultry but an unprecedented epizootic of avian influenza A (H5N1) that is highly pathogenic has crossed the species barrier in Asia to cause many human fatalities and likely to possess an increasing pandemic threat. Zoonotic potential of AI virus was first recorded in 1997 with hospitalization of 18 people (six died) following the infection with HPAI (H5N1) in Hong Kong. This provided the evidence that HPAI strains of chicken can adapt, multiply and even cause death in affected individuals. So, it is the prime time to create awareness about the HPAI and its transmission to human beings so that necessary precautionary measures can be taken to prevent and control the disease efficiently and effectively.

Etiology: Influenza viruses are under the Orthomyxoviridae family and belong to either influenza A or influenza B or influenza C genus. The virus particles are enveloped with glycoprotein projections having haemagglutinin or neuraminidase activity and contain 8 negative sense single stranded RNA. Influenza A viruses are classified into subtypes based on these two surface antigens, haemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N ). The haemagglutinin is a rod shaped trimer which agglutinates RBCs and neuraminidase is a mushroom shaped tetramer which releases the virus from cells because of its sialidase activity. Beneath the lipid envelope there is a membrane or matrix (M) protein which surrounds a helical complex containing the nucleoprotein (NP) and polymerases (PB1, PB2, P) protein. There are also two nonstructural protein (NS) present in the virus. There are 17 haemagglutinin antigen (H1 to H17) and 10 neuraminidase antigens (N1 to N10) present in influenza A viruses. Each RNA strand of AI virus code for at least one protein. The H glycoprotein of influenza virus has two important functions which are imperative for the infectivity of the virus (i) it is responsible for attachment of the virus to the host cell receptors of glycoprotein or gangliosides containing sialic acid. (ii) it possesses fusion activity between the host cell membrane and the virus membrane so that virus genetic material is introduced into the host cell. The glycoprotein is produced as a precursor, HAo which requires post translational cleavage to HA1 and HA2, by host proteases before it is able to induce membrane fusion. Then only the B virus particles becomes infectious. Type A viruses include the avian, swine, equine and human influenza A viruses. The large number of subtypes present in the type A influenza viruses are due to fact that viruses often undergo antigenic shift by the process of genetic reassortment.

Etiology

Intestinal spirochetes colonise the large intestine of avian, swine and humans.

Family spirochaetacae has six genera, of which Borrelia, Serpulina and Treponema have species pathogenic for animals. Avian intestinal spirochetes are grouped in four: Serpulina hyodysenteriae, S. intermedius, S. pilosicoli (Angullina coli) and an unnamed group.

Chicken S. hyodysenteriae is different from porcine one. S. hyodysentriae, Angullina coli and unclassified groups are present in the USA, whereas S.intermedius is in Europe and Australia.

Avian intestinal spirochetes are gram negative, stain brown with silver impregnation techniques and blue in Wright-Giemsa stain. They can be divided in 3 pathotypes 1) severely pathogenic 2) Mildly to moderate pathogenic and 3) subclinical or apathogenic.

LL is a retrovirus-causes, neoplastic disease of semi-mature or mature chickens characterized by a gradual onset in a flock, persistent low mortality and neoplasia of, the bursa of Fabricius (BF) with metastasis to many other internal organs especially the liver, spleen and kidney.

Introduction

From avian species alone approximately 20 mycoplasma serotypes have been isolated and characterised. Out of them, three serotypes (M. gallisepticum, M. meleagridis and M. synoviae) are most typical and pathogenic. A serotype M. iowae causes low hatchability in turkeys. Mycoplasmas are bacteria that lack cell wall and belong to the class Mollicutes. Although they have been considered extracellular agents, scientists admit nowadays that some of them are obligatory intracellular microorganisms, whereas all other mycoplasmas are considered facultative intracellular organisms

Etiology

Avian Nephritis Virus (ANV), an RNA virus is Astro virus under the genus Avastrovirus in Astroviridae family. Strains of ANV exist. ANV is very resistant and stable in the environment.

A. Answer the following questions

1.    Why ducks are highly susceptible to aflatoxicosis?

Ans: Ducks are about 200 times more sensitive than broilers and layers. Ducks contain a very high level of enzyme in the livertoconvert aflatoxinB to “aflatoxacol”. Besides, aflatoxin metabolism is 90 times faster in the duck liver than in rat liver.

2.    Why duck should have never access to feed without water?

Ans: Most mashes form a sticky paste when mixed with saliva and adhere to the papillae and other structures bordering the outer margin of the tongue and upper and lower bill. This caking interferes with the movement of the food mass to the tongue resulting in reduction of food intake and increase in feed wastage which occurs when the duck attempts to shake or wash off the mash adhering to its mouthparts.

It is interesting to note that only 25 of about 1200 species of birds found in India have been reported to inflict damage to crops, vegetables and fruits. The exact ecological causes for population increase of individual species have yet to be studied. It would appear that, in general, the granivorous birds became abundant with the increase in area under grain crops and the subsequent storage of grain in godowns and bulk storage. The details of important bird pests are given below:

Poultry sector in India has grown from a backyard activity into a major commercial activity in four and half decades. Poultry is one of the fastest growing subsectors of agricultural sector in India. Within the poultry sector, broiler production is growing faster than egg production and about 66.7% of the total output (in value term) comes from the poultry meat sector and only 33.3% from egg production (FAO, 2008). India ranks fifth in chicken and sixth in duck population. Presently, India is world’s third largest egg producer and the fifth major producer of chicken meat (FAO, 2010). Poultry is today the major source of meat in India. As per an estimate about 2 million people are employed, fully or partly, along the poultry value chain and that an increase in annual per caput availability of one egg or 50 gm or poultry meat generates about 20,000 to 25,000 full time jobs (Ciamarra & Otte, 2009). Distribution of chicken and duck population as well as poultry meat and egg production among different regions, countries of the world and among different Indian states has been already discussed in chapter one of this book.

Introduction

Avian salmonellosis is the term used to describe a large group of acute or chronic diseases caused by one or more members of the bacterial genus Salmonella, which is a member of the large family Enterobacteriaceae. Domestic poultry is known to constitute the largest single reservoir of Salmonella organism existing in nature. They include host specific and nonmotile members of the genus S. enterica subspp. enterica pullorum/gallinarum. If the infection of poultry is due to other Salmonella organisms other than Salmonella enteric subspp. enterica gallinarum/pullorum, the infection is then referred to as paratyphoid.

Poultry is one of the most emerging growth components of Indian agriculture, with egg and meat production rising at the rate of 8-10% per year when compared to crop production (1.5 - 2% each year). In India, the poultry population stood at 851.81 million in the 20th livestock census, an increase of 16.8% over the 19th census. Poultry sectors contribute 1% of national GDP and 25% in livestock GDP (FAO, 2021). According to DAHD’s 2022 report, our nation produces 122.05 billion eggs and 4.47 million tonnes of poultry meat altogether. India ranks eighth in terms of total meat production and third in terms of total egg production (DAHD, 2022).

Introduction

Avian medicine is a rapidly growing field, with an increasing number of exotic bird species being kept as pets. However, the unique anatomy, physiology, and behaviour of these birds present several challenges as well as new opportunities for veterinarians and researchers.Now a day’s birds are gaining popularity over dogs and cats because of various reasons listed below:

a. They are more suited in present life style as can be suited well in small spaces.

b. They require low maintenance with relative low cost of maintenance and live longer life.

c. They form very strong bonds with their owners.

Birds can be classified into different families, such as Psittaciformes, Passeriformes, Columbiformes, Piciformes, Anseriformes, Galliformes etc. containing numerous species (>10,000). The first documentation of parrot as a pet was found in Rig Veda, written more than 3000 years ago. Evidence of bird keeping is observed in ancient civilizations of Greece, Rome, China and Egypt. In Greek mythology, Raven (a crow) was mentioned as a symbol of good luck and was associated with God Apollo (God of prophecy). Crows are also considered as ancestors in Hindu mythology and food (pinda) is offered to crows during ritual of paying homage to dead persons. In most of the countries psittacine and passerine birds are preferred as pet birds.

The avocado (Persea americana Mill) belonging to the family Lauraceae, may have originated in southern Mexico but was cultivated from the Rio Grande to central Peru long before the arrival of Europeans. It was then distributed into the West Indies and all other parts of the tropical and subtropical world. It reached India probably in 1892. Now it is grown in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala in India, to a limited extent.

Cultivars/Varieties: Fuerte, Hass, Lula, Pollck, Purple, Green.

Uses

Avocado is low in sugar content and rich in avocado butter, hence can be highly recommended as a high energy food for diabetics. The pulp of the fruit can be preserved by freezing, and can be used as sandwich filling or spread, in ice creams and milk shakes. Though the fruit is high in fat content, it is harmless unlike animal fat. The pulp has butter consistency, and looks very much like cow’s butter and bland in taste with a nutty flavour, without any offensive odour or smell. Its aroma resembles that of tender coconut.

Avocado is a pear-shaped berry, which is otherwise known as alligator pear or butter fruit. The term alligator pear is due to the scaly appearance of some varieties of avocado, especially, the Hass avocados, which possesses black leathery skin. The edible portion of avocado is its flesh, which is yellowish green in colour. This flesh has a slightly nutty flavour with the consistency of butter. Avocado contains vitamins A, C, and B complex that sustain accurate performance of neurotransmitter which makes it as a superior food for the nervous system. Avocados have the highest energy value (245 cal/100 g) of any fruit besides being a reservoir of several vitamins and minerals (calcium and magnesium) that can calm and aid restorative sleep which is essential for nervous system to perform efficiently. Avocado is mainly used fresh, in sandwich filling or in salads. It can also be used in ice creams and milk shakes and the pulp may be preserved by freezing. The end quality of avocado determines its nutritional value. 

Genus : Persea 
Species : americana Mill.
Family : Lauraceae
Chromosome No. : 2n =24

Horticulturally avocado (Persea americana) is a new fruit and is often considered to be  one of the most   nutritive of present day fruit crops. Genus Persea, name has been derived from ancient Greek name of an Egyptian tree with sweet fruits  derived probably from Perseus. Avocado belongs to the family Lauraceae, has 47 genera and about 1900 species. Genus Persea has some 150 species of tropical evergreen trees. Its discovery in the new world has contributed much to the human diet. Fruit is a rich source of fat (27%), 2 per cent protein content is higher than in any other fresh fruit, mineral like Ca, Cl, Fe, Mg, P, K, Na and sulphur are also higher that makes avocado as a useful food which produces more of base forming elements rather than acid forming elements that are found more only in nut crops.