eChapters

Challenge: High Initial Investment

1. Solution: Government subsidies and financial assistance prograAms can be introduced to incentivize farmers to adopt drone technology. Additionally, academia and researchers can collaborate with drone manufacturers to develop affordable and cost-effective drone solutions tailored to the needs of small-scale farmers.
2. Contribution:
   1. Government: Implement subsidy programs and financial incentives.
   2. Academia and Researchers: Conduct studies to identify cost-effective drone technologies.
   3. Industry and Startups: Develop budget-friendly drone models suitable for agricultural applications.

Introduction

The use of drones, or Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), in the agriculture sector has ushered in a new era of precision farming. These versatile flying machines equipped with advanced sensors and cameras have the potential to transform various agricultural activities, resulting in increased productivity, reduced costs, and more sustainable practices.

This chapter explores the history of drones, their components and functioning, the numerous agriculture activities where drones can be employed, the benefits they offer, real-world use cases, challenges in adoption, and possible solutions to fully realize their potential in the agriculture sector.

When embarking on the entrepreneurial journey, it’s essential to craft a Unique Value Proposition (UVP) that sets your business apart in a crowded market. Your UVP should succinctly convey the distinctive benefits your product or service brings to customers, solving their pain points in ways competitors can’t. To develop a compelling UVP, start by delving into your target audience’s challenges and desires. Understand their needs deeply and determine how your offering can address those needs uniquely and effectively. Whether it’s through innovative features, exceptional quality, or a unique approach, your UVP should highlight what makes your solution stand out. Distill this essence into a clear and memorable statement that resonates with your audience.

Fundamentals of Entrepreneurial Success

Entrepreneurship is a complex journey that requires diverse skills and perspectives. A well-structured team brings together individuals with complementary strengths, fostering innovation and problem-solving. A cohesive team can withstand challenges, provide emotional support, and share the burden of both successes and failures. Furthermore, a united team can attract investors, partners, and customers, as the synergy among team members reflects the potential of the business.

Business Plan

A business plan is a comprehensive document that outlines the goals, strategies, and operational details of a business. It serves as a roadmap for the entrepreneur and communicates the business’s value proposition to potential investors, partners, and stakeholders. A well-structured business plan includes sections on executive summary, company description, market analysis, competitive analysis, marketing and sales strategies, organizational structure, product/service description, financial projections, and funding requirements. Creating a business plan not only helps entrepreneurs clarify their vision and goals but also demonstrates a solid understanding of the market and a clear plan for achieving success.

Definition

Entrepreneurship refers to the process of identifying, creating, and pursuing opportunities to develop new products, services, or processes, often involving innovation and risk-taking. It involves the willingness to take calculated risks in order to capitalize on these opportunities. Entrepreneurs are individuals who exhibit a unique mindset, combining creativity, resourcefulness, and resilience to bring their ideas to fruition. Entrepreneurship can manifest in various forms, including starting a new business, introducing novel products to the market, or even implementing innovative strategies within an existing organization. It is a dynamic and evolving concept that plays a vital role in driving economic progress and societal development.

Entrepreneurship plays a vital role in driving economic growth, and its significance in the agriculture and allied industry cannot be overlooked. As the backbone of many economies, agriculture and its allied sectors provide employment to a significant portion of the global population. We shall highlight the benefits of being an entrepreneur in this sector, discuss the different types of entrepreneurs, provide relevant statistics and case studies, and touch upon the factors affecting entrepreneurial behaviour. Additionally, we will examine the current trends and forecast for the next three years in the agricultural entrepreneurship landscape and examine relevant statistics and case studies and shed light on the government’s role in promoting entrepreneurship in the Indian startup ecosystem.

Following are the reasons why must understand topic indepth.

1. Agritech startups have raised over $1 billion in funding in the past 5 years.
2. The Indian agritech market is expected to reach $15 billion by 2025.
3. There are over 1,000 agritech startups in India.
4. The top three agritech sectors in India are precision agriculture, farm management, and farm equipment rental.

Urbanization, industrialization, and economic growth in India have all led to an increase in the generation of municipal solid waste (MSW) by a number of urban local bodies (ULBs). In cities with high population densities, SWM is a significant difficulty. Being a diverse country with a wide range of religious communities, customs, and traditions like India makes it more challenging to accomplish sustainable development in a country that is rapidly industrialising and improving its standard of living. Although there have been substantial changes in the social, economic, and environmental spheres, India’s SWM systems have mostly remained the same. Currently, 90% of residual waste is thrown in the informal sector rather than properly disposed of. To make SWM more sustainable, new management practises and disposal sites are needed. The inefficiency of the current waste management systems has a detrimental effect on the economy, the environment, and public health. The Ministry of Environment and Forests of India introduced regulations for garbage treatment, although there is irregular and insufficient compliance.

5.1 Waste Treatment and Disposal

Source reduction and feeding the hungry are significant considerations for decreasing avoidable food waste. However, non-edible wastes like livestock manure, agricultural wastes, and unusable food wastes are also classified as organic wastes. The environment and general public’s health may be seriously endangered by improper treatment of these wastes. Wastes can contaminate surface and ground waterways by runoff or leaching if they contain pathogens, chemicals, antibiotics, and nutrients. The breakdown of organic waste also results in the production of methane. As is well known, methane is a powerful greenhouse gas that captures more heat into the atmosphere than carbon dioxide. It is possible to remove organic waste and turn it into biogas, a sustainable energy source that can be utilised to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the likelihood of stream pollution. Further emission reductions are made possible by replacing fossil fuels with biogas, sometimes leading to carbon-negative systems.

4.1 Biomass Energy Resource

Among the various methods for producing electricity, biomass is one of the most common. This method uses animal waste, wood pellets, etc. to produce electricity. The use of biomass energy has proven beneficial over time and has the potential to be both reliable and consistent as an alternative energy source.

Organic matter is simply referred to as biomass. Or, to put it another way, biomass is anything living or ever living, including animal waste, crop waste, garden trash, etc. As a result, biomass renewable energy is the energy produced during the use of biomass. Biomass derives and stores its energy from the sun, which is absorbed by plants through a process known as photosynthesis. Plants contain chemical energy that is passed to animals and then eaten by people. Various plant and animal products, including sugarcane, corn crops, wood chips, and even dung, can be utilised. These substances, also referred to as feedstocks, are converted into a biomass fuel.

Wastewater is defined as water that has been altered by certain substances, resulting in changes in its physical, chemical, or biological properties. These changes render it unfit for certain uses, such as the purpose of drinking. Since almost all of man’s daily activities are dependent on water, therefore ‘waste’ is discharged into the surroundings as a result of these actions. There are a number of substances that can be harmful to the environment and make people sick, including chemicals, detergents, household cleaners, dirt, microorganisms (germs), and body wastes. The water supply generates a great deal of wastewater, so it is essential that it is treated in order to reduce the amount of waste that it generates. Essentially, wastewater treatment ensures that a healthy environment is created and public health is protected by removing the majority of pollutants found in wastewater through the treatment process. Consequently, wastewater management plays an important role in protecting the planet, and public and economic health, as well as social, economic, and political stability.

The basic methods for wastewater sewerage (collection, treatment, and disposal) are as follows:

• Off-site sewerage
• Separate sewerage system
• Combined sewerage system
• On-site sewerage

Many nations have implemented separate sewage systems that transmit sewage and storm water through separate pipelines in order to separate the two. Storm water often does not contribute to a wastewater treatment facility (WWTP). Domestic sewage contains 99.9% or more water. The remaining portion is made up of bacteria

Industrial waste can be solid, liquid, or gaseous in type and is generated by industrial activities throughout a manufacturing process. Depending on its nature, it can be hazardous or non-hazardous. It is important to note that hazardous wastes can be ignitable, toxic, reactive, corrosive, or radioactive and can pose a threat to the environment. Industrial waste includes, among other things, paints, concrete, paper goods, sandpaper, metals and chemical solvents. Most industries face a significant problem associated with the disposal of waste. Due to the significant expenses involved, it is not feasible to collect and treat all of the waste due to the sizeable volume of waste produced by numerous businesses. As a result, especially in developing nations, the majority of industrial wastes are illegally deposited on wastelands like deserted fields

Human breast cancer (HBC) is a common malady concomitant with a massive death rate throughout the world. It has been reported that around 1.7 million women are globally identified with breast neoplasia, and out of this, half a million female dies from this terrible disease (Torre et al., 2015). Due to the shocking impacts of breast cancer, prevention, and therapeutic interventions have become a priority-based objective for many researchers to understand the biology of breast cancer disease during its progression and development.

CMTs can be classified on the basis of morphologic features, tissue of origin (epithelial, myoepithelial or mesenchymal tissue) or prognosis. The World Health Organization (WHO) classification of canine and feline mammary tumors has categorized CMT into three major categories i) malignant, ii) benign and iii) unclassified tumors. On the basis of histological characteristics, the mammary tumors have been classified into fibroadenomas, adenomas, solid carcinomas (with transformed epithelial cells), tubular adenocarcinomas (with tubule like arrangements), papillary adenocarcinomas (having papillary like projections), anaplastic carcinomas (with highly pleomorphic cells), sarcomas (involvement of connective tissue) and malignant tumors (Fig. 2). Fibroadenomas and adenomas are the types of benign mammary tumors the former contains some connective tissues component in between, and carcinomas, adenocarcinomas and sarcomas come under malignant tumors.

Mammary tumors are either of benign or malignant types. Benign tumors are defined as mass or lump of cells unable to invade the neighboring tissue/ organ and less likely to re-grow after removal. However, malignant tumors are the tumors which have the ability to invade other tissues/ organs and tend to re-grow even after surgical removal. Malignant tumors grow at faster rate as compared to benign tumors. Nearly, 40-50% of canine mammary tumors (CMTs) are malignant.

Canine domestication is an age-old practice which started with guard for humans and other animals, dogs being the favorite companion animals. They have many positive social effects on lives of their owners including enhanced emotional sense and companionship and even reduction of anxiety and mental disorders. Though dogs have proven good for human health, it should be kept in mind that are prone to many disorders and infectious diseases. Healthy life of dogs is attributed to healthy lifestyle, good feeding practices and regular medical care. In addition, an equally important practice is vaccination. Since dogs live in close proximity to human beings and their environment, regular check on their immunity becomes essential, especially when kept as indoor pets. Their illnesses vary from minor issues like dental tartar to fatal diseases like tumors and rabies. Depending upon lifestyle patterns and subsequent body parameters, many predisposing factors increases the susceptibility of dogs to various diseases.

An Entrepreneur is an individual who creates a new business, bearing most of the risks and enjoying most of the rewards. The process of setting up a business is known as entrepreneurship. An Entrepreneur is commonly seen as an innovator, a source of new ideas, goods, services and business procedures. Entrepreneurship plays a key role in any economy by using the skills and initiative necessary to anticipate needs and bringing good new ideas to market.

The term “entrepreneur” was coined in America in the late 70’s. A few executives of major corporations in the United States left their jobs to start their own small businesses because the top executives in these companies were not accepting new ideas. Managers who have become entrepreneurs find amazing success in their new businesses. Some of them were dangerous to companies they left a few years ago. This type of businessman came to be known as entrepreneurs. Such a brain drain is a global phenomenon and is not limited to the United States. Industrialists around the world began designing routes and suspending the flight of their most prominent officers. In 1976 Norman Macras wrote to the London Economist that large successful companies should become ‘business partners’’.

An entrepreneur has a wide range of options regarding his or her project in various fields such as product / service, market, technology, equipment, production scale, time division and location. Therefore, the identification of investment opportunities (projects) requires an understanding of one’s work environment, potential investment sensitivity, a hypothetical analysis of various factors and the probability of luck. This chapter deals with the evaluation and evaluation of project ideas, the steps of the project identification process and the consideration of involvement in the identification of new projects by an existing company.

Entrepreneurial climate depends on the existing economic system. Existing social and political establishment and existing economic policies of Government determine the economic system. Entrepreneurial development is largely due to the existence of this economic system. Business development functioning as a new component, economic structure and economic transformation. The economic system varies from country to country, so the business development process varies.

Entrepreneurship means all the activities that a person has to do to start and run businesses in line with social, political and economic changes. Businesses include activities related to consumer likes and dislikes, feelings and behaviors, likes and dislikes and the introduction of business plans to meet all of consumer expectations. Entrepreneurship is seen as a ‘new product’ that will enable entrepreneurs to develop a new type of business organization and new business activities that address the changing needs of the community. 

1. Leading cut flower exporter in the world is Netherlands.
2. Concept of lawn was developed in England.
3. In which garden, arrangement of rocks is main feature Japanese garden.
4. Shrubs or trees planted at regular intervals on boundry for fencing Hedges.
5. The green carpet for the landscape maintained by growing and mowing grasses. Lawn.
6. Thorny fencing plant used as a hedge Inga dulcus.

1. Who was the first Entomologist to the Government of India? Lionel de Niceville.
2. Who succeeded Lefroy and devoted his attention mainly to insect taxonomy and built up an excellent library and a valuable insect collection? T.B. Fletcher.
3. When was the Zoological Survey of India started in the Indian Museum at Calcutta? 1916.
4. Who was the first Plant Protection Adviser to Government of India? Dr. Hem Singh Pruthi.

1.The fine earth covering land surface acts as a reservoir of nutrients and water Soil.
2.The word ‘Soil’ is derived from Latin.
3. Study of origin, classification, morphology of soil is known as Pedology.
4. The study of soils in relation to crop growth Edaphology.
5. The father of Soil Science Dokuchalev.

1.Agronomy is derived from Greek word.
2.Indigenous plough cuts ‘V-shape furrow’.
3.Indigenous plough is a primary tillage implement.
4.The ploughing depth of chisel plough is 60-70 cm.
5.Hoe is an example of secondary tillage implement.
6.Tillage improves soil aeration.

1. Father of agronomy is -Peter Decresenzi.
2. Dr. Biwant Rajis the founder of Relay cropping.
3. The Indian Institute of Farming System Research is located at - Modipuram, Meerut, U.P.
4. Scientific study of mixed cropping was firstly done by -La-Flitze (1928).
5. Relay cropping concept was derived from -Relay race.
6. Natural Resource Management is an example of Sustainable Agriculture.
7. Cropping System is a component of -Farming System.

Introduction

Due to inherent composition (high moisture and nutrients) of meat, it is highly perishable in nature. Hence, preservation of meat is essential to maintain its fresh quality. This is accomplished by various preservative techniques based on the principles of temperature control, moisture control and direct microbial inhibition.

Temperature Control

1. Chilling/Refrigeration

In this method, meat is stored at refrigeration temperature of 2 to 5°C. Chilling of animal carcasses is also carried out during ageing process, cutting transit, retail display and even in consumer household before ultimate use. Relative humidity during chilling is kept about 90%. The fresh meat has shelf life of 5-7 days at refrigerated temperature

Introduction

Resazurin has high tinctorial value (related to colour), imparting characteristic blue colour. Resazurin test gives us indirect information concerning bacterial content and /or activity. Resazurin is also sensitive to the reducing action of leucocytes. The results of this test are comparatively less affected by antibiotic residues in milk than methylene blue reduction test.

Principle

Reduction of dye is indicated by a gradual colour change through various shades of purple and mauve to full pink, at which point the resazurin completely changes to resorufin.

Introduction

Dye reduction tests show the comparative activity of the bacteria in milk, therefore are considered as rough indicator of the number of bacteria per millilitre of milk. These tests find wide application in dairy industry especially in grading of milk for manufacturing purposes. The small amount of equipment, materials and simplicity of method permit simultaneous testing of several samples. Since it combines speed and adaptability, this test may be used in milk plants, receiving stations, condensing plants, cheese factories and similar establishments to rapidly grade incoming milk.

Principle

It is based on the observation that the colour imparted to milk by a small amount of methylene blue disappears in a time, the length of which is dependant largely upon the number of microorganisms

Introduction

Standard Plate Count (SPC) is used for determination of population of viable microbes. Enumeration procedures are based on the assumption that microbial cells present in a sample mixed with an agar medium form visible separated colonies. The bacterial colonies developed on the plates are counted. Each colony is presumed to have developed from one bacterium or clump of bacterial cells. Therefore, the results are expressed in colony counts per /ml of sample or colony forming units per /ml (cfu /ml). Total number of colonies counted on the plate multiplied by the dilution factor represents the number of viable organisms in a sample. SPC is a useful method for evaluating the microbiological quality at various stages of processing. It is also helpful in detecting the source of contamination in the product.

Introduction

Bacteriological examination of milk indicates the hygienic condition of the milk i.e., quality of milk in relation to the health of consumer. Two main objectives of carrying out bacteriological examination are to evaluate the degree of cleanliness in the vicinity of production and handling of milk; and secondly to check the presence of infectious microorganism. Generally, number of bacteria present per milliliter is taken as an index in the routine examination of milk as other tests for identification and differentiation of pathogenic and non-pathogenic microorganisms are time consuming and expensive.

Direct Microscopic Count (DMC) consists of examining stained films of measured volume of milk or milk product, dried on a glass slide under a compound microscope. This method enables rapid estimation of total population of bacteria of a milk sample with relatively more accuracy as compared to other methods.

Introduction

Both beneficiary and deleterious microorganisms are present in food. Beneficiary microbes are used for the preparation of a number of dairy and meat products and are called Probiotics, whereas deleterious microbes can cause food poisoning. The quantitative analysis of food products is necessary to find out the presence of types of microorganisms.

Requirements

1. Food sample
2. Mechanical blender
3. Sterilised distilled water
4. Steilised distilled water blanks (9 ml)
5. Petri plates
6. Sterile Pipettes (1 ml)
7. Eiosin Methylene Blue agar medium
8. Incubator
9. Colony counter
10. Marker

Procedure

1. Weigh 1 g of well blended

Introduction

In recent years, the boom in industrialization has revolutionised the countries but has also added much of sufferings. There is tremendous increase in the water and air pollution. Large amounts of effluents from industries containing organic substances of different nature are discharged and enter the aquatic systems resulting in water pollution. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the amount of dissolved oxygen required by the aerobic microflora to oxidise the organic matter of dirty water. Increased organic matter results in more oxygen requirements by microorganisms to oxidise it and it results in enhancement of BOD of water. As the BOD of water rises, due to decrease in dissolved oxygen (DO), there is increase in death of fish due to suffocation. Determination of biological oxygen demand (BOD) only is insufficient to give a clear picture of organic content of water bodies and the presence of toxic chemicals in the sample so the chemical oxygen

Introduction

Sugars are commonly found in the form of biopolymers. Cellulose, a biopolymer of glucose is the predominant constituent of plant tissues, and may be shortly described as the structural bases of vegetable world. In this case, the glucose moieties are strung together by P-glycosidase linkages, which form the linear chain, making it resistant to chemical attack. Hemicellulose consists of short, highly branched, chains of sugars. It contains five carbon sugars (usually D-Xylose and L-Arabinose) and six carbon sugars (D-Galactose, D-Glucose and D-Mannose) and uronic acid. Its branched nature renders hemicellulose amorphous and relatively easy to hydrolyse to its constituent sugars. Lignin is a biopolymer rich in phenolic components, which provide structural integrity to plants. Acid and neutral detergent fraction methods (ADF and NDF) involve the gravimetric determination of residue previously treated with acid and neutral detergent solutions. These methods determine the insoluble fraction and their individual components. NDF represents the total plant fibre or cell wall including hemicellulose

Introduction

Organic matter in sediment consists of carbon and nutrients in the form of carbohydrates, proteins, fats and nucleic acids. Bacteria quickly eat the less resistant molecules, such as nucleic acids and many of the proteins. Sediment organic matter is derived from plant/animal detritus, bacteria or plankton formed in situ. Total organic carbon refers to the amount of organic matter preserved within sediment.

Materials

1. Sample
2. Crucibles
3. Furnace

Procedure

Take 1.0 g of sample in a crucible whose empty weight is already recorded. Place this crucible in a furnace. Switch on the furnace and set the temperature at 550°C. Keep the samples for 3 hours

Introduction

The balance between soil organic matter (SOM) levels and nutrient cycling are the key to sustained productivity of agricultural system. Both are closely related through microbially driven mobilisation/immobilisation processes. Three major models have been recognised for C pool viz. Labile C, non-labile C and recalcitrant. The models have been characterised on the bases of their half-life period. The labile C includes oxidisable C (with KMnO4), microbial biomass C (soil carbohydrates) and soil fauna exudates (polysaccharides). Its half-life period is from a few hours to a few days. The non-labile C includes aggregate C and its turn over time is from a few months to a few years while the recalcitrant (stabilised C) includes humic fractions and charcoal C having the turn over time of hundred years. Thus fractionation of SOM is carried out on the bases of humic substances, dissolved organic C, natural C13 abundance, microbial biomass C and ease of oxidation of C. The latter method provides qualitative characterisation of soil C.

Introduction

The soil microbial biomass is an important component of the soil organic matter that regulates the transformation and storage of nutrients. It is a labile component of the soil organic fraction containing 1 to 3% of the soil carbon and up to 5% of the total soil N. The microbiologically mediated processes affect ecosystem functions associated with nutrient cycling, soil fertility, global C change and soil organic matter turnover. The size and activity of the soil microbial biomass must be assessed to fully understand nutrient flux in managed and natural ecosystems.

Soil microbial biomass estimations are useful in investigations that compare temporal nutrient fluctuations along natural and perturbed gradients. The effect of tillage, crop rotations and soil type on organic carbon and nutrient turnover can be assessed by following nutrient pools and activity associated with the soil microbial biomass.

Introduction

Demonstration of biological nitrogen fixation is usually accomplished by estimating the total nitrogen through use of some modification of the Kjeldahl procedure. This technique is accurate and reliable whenever a medium initially low in nitrogen is employed.

Principle

The dried organism is digested with sulphuric acid. Organic and nitrate nitrogen is converted to ammonium sulphate and the ammonia gas is distilled into boric acid forming ammonium borate making weak boric acid alkaline. The ammonium borate is back titrated with standard sulphuric acid until the reaction mixture changes its colour from green to pink due to formation of ammonium sulphate. The standard acid used in back titration of ammonium borate is a measure of nitrogen content of the organism.

Introduction

The major biogenic gases, which contribute to global warming, are carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. Out of these, methane is the most important gas because its thermal absorption is 30 times greater than carbon dioxide, though its atmospheric concentration is about 200 times less than carbon dioxide. Atmospheric measurements of greenhouse gases indicate that methane concentration had increased by 1 per cent annually to 1.7 ppm (by volume) during the last decade. The steady increase of atmospheric methane concentration in the past 200 years has attracted much attention.

Flooded rice soils provide an optimum environment for methane production and emission. Flooding a soil creates essential redox potential, anaerobic decomposition of organic matter and stabilizes the soil pH near neutral, thus makes the congenial environment for methane emission.

Rice is the world’s most important food crop

Introduction

The enzyme nitrogenase is produced in all N₂-fixing systems. The activity of nitrogenase enzyme relates to the biological nitrogen fixation, which can be determined directly by measurement of fixation product, ammonia and the further products of its assimilation. The activity can also be measured indirectly by measuring the ability of nitrogenase to reduce the number of substrates other than N₂. Substrates such as nitrous oxide (N₂O), azide ion (N₃^- ), cyanide (CN^-) and isocyanide (NC^-) are reduced and the requirements for ATP and reductant are similar to those of N₂ fixation. The reduction of protons to molecular hydrogen has been used to measure the nitrogenase activity.

Dilworth (1966) and Schollhorn and Burris (1966&1967) observed the inhibitory effect of Acetylene (C₂H₂) on N₂ fixation by extracts of Clostridium pasteurianum. Dilworth (1966) further observed by mass spectrometry that the C₂H₂ was reduced to C₂H₄. Both gases are readily measured at very low concentrations by gas chromatographic techniques.

Introduction

All biological reactions in soil are catalyzed by enzymes. Soil enzyme activities are believed to indicate the extent of specific processes in soil and in some cases, can act as indicators of soil fertility. Biological oxidation of organic compounds is generally a dehydrogenation process and there are many dehydrogenases that carry out the following reaction:

XH₂ is an organic compound and is a hydrogen donor and A is a hydrogen acceptor. These systems are integral part of the microorganisms, so dehydrogenase activity can be correlated with active population.

Principle

Measurement of dehydrogenase activity involves determination of Triphenyl formazan (TPF) produced by the reduction of Triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC). TTC is a redox indicator, a yellow coloured water soluble salt which possesses the property of being easily transformed into, methanol soluble formazan (intensely coloured, water insoluble) by reduction. 

Introduction

Urea is one of the common fertilizers used as a source of nitrogen. It has nitrogen in amide form (-NH₂) and this form of nitrogen is not utilized by plants. So it has to be hydrolysed. The enzyme, urease hydrolyses the urea to ammonia and ammoniacal nitrogen is taken up by plants or further nitrified.

The measurement of activity of this enzyme in soil is important from soil fertility point of view. There are two methods for determination of the urease activity of soils.

• First involves the measurement of end products of urea hydrolysis. i.e., NH₃ or CO₂.

Introduction

Various organic orthophosphoric mono-and di-esters in soils are hydrolyzed when incubated with toluene-treated or irradiated soils, indicative of phosphatase activity. Assays have been identified, based on the rates of release of orthophosphate. Phosphatase activities of field soils showed little or no variation with season but were influenced by the cropping system and nature of the plant cover. Activities generally increased after the addition of inorganic and organic fertilizers to soils. However, inhibition of phosphatase by phosphatic fertilizers and by liming of soils (application of ca and Mg) has been reported. Phosphatase activities were directly related to the organic-P of soils but were not consistently related to available-P contents.

Phosphatases have been used to describe a broad group of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of both esters and anhydrides. These are classified into five categories

Introduction

The pH (hydrogen ion concentration) of the environment provides the maximum effect on the growth of bacteria. Each organism grows at its optimal pH. Due to variation in other factors such as temperature, osmotic pressure etc marked changes in pH have also been observed.

Requirements

1. Erlenmeyer flasks (100 ml)
2. Culture of E. coli
3. Pipettes
4. Spectrophotometer
5. pH meter

Procedure

Introduction

The water potential plays an important role on growth of bacteria. If the medium has higher concentration of solute, it is said to be hypertonic. Due to this, the cytoplasm dehydrates and shrinks, resulting in inhibition of growth of bacteria. If solute concentration is less, the medium is hypotonic and hence maximum osmotic pressure on the cell.

Requirements

1. Cultures of E.coli and Bacillus
2. Nutrient agar
3. Sodium Chloride (stock solution at 5 M concentration)
4. Inoculating loop
5. BOD incubator

Procedure

Introduction

The most important factor that influences the activity of bacterial enzymes is temperature. Most ofthe organisms grow under mesophilic conditions (at25⁰C). If the optimum temperature is increased, the rate of growth of organism is affected due to changes in protein structure which results denaturation of critical cell protein and ultimately inhibitsthe growth. If temperature is below critical temperature, then there is complete stoppage of growth as less activation energy is available for critical process to occur. However, there are certain organisms which can tolerate extreme temperatures viz.

1. Psychrophiles: Tolerate and grow at > 20⁰C temperature
2. Mesophiles: Tolerate and grow at between 20⁰C and 45⁰C temperature
3. Thermophiles: Tolerate and grow at <45⁰C temperature.

Introduction

Most of the bacteria, excepting the photosynthetic bacteria, are damaged by ultraviolet (UV) radiation. UV rays have lower energy content and are capable of producing lethal effect in cells exposed to wavelengths in the range of 200 nm to 300 nm. Nucleic acids absorb these radiations leading to formation of thymine dimers which distort the structure of DNA. Distortion in DNA brings the interferences in DNA replication and transcription. The germicidal effect of UV can be used to determine the minimum amount of exposure required to produce 100% mortality of micro-organisms.

Requirements

1. Nutrient agar medium
2. Card board
3. Incubator
4. Petri plates
5. Inoculating loop
6. Bacterial cultures

Introduction

Antibiotics are the substances produced by one microorganism and are required to inhibit the growth of other microorganisms. Antibiotics are used to combat infectious diseases. The antibiotic sensitivity is very significant due to development of resistance among various microorganisms.

Requirements

1. Swab
2. Nutrient agar
3. Petri plates
4. Bacterial cultures
5. Forceps
6. Antibiotic discs
7. BOD Incubator

Procedure

1. Prepare the bacterial lawn on Nutrient agar plate.

Introduction

Mycorrhizal fungi are ubiquitous in soils throughout the world and form symbiotic relationships with the roots of most terrestrial plants. The infection of roots of most flowering plants by symbiotic fungi and the transformation of such roots into unique morphological structures are called Mycorrhiza. Over the years it has been convincingly demonstrated that inoculation of agricultural crop plants and forest trees with mycorrhizal fungi can significantly stimulate their growth and development. Such probiotic effects are more pronounced in nutritionally poor soils which occur in very large areas of the arid and semiarid tropics.

Mycorrhiza are classified into three different classes