eChapters

Seed handling ensures the potential utilization of seed material. Collection and utilization of quality seeds are indispensable in producing quality planting material and better seedling establishment. After selecting the quality seed source, collecting good quality seeds physiologically and genetically is considered the first step in seed handling, followed by processing seeds, testing, storage, and pre-treatment for germination. The main goal of seed handling is to attain an excellent seed survival rate. The chances of seeds getting damaged during any stages of seed handling because of careless or rough approaches are very high.

From the regeneration point of view, the quantity of seed production per tree correspondingly has a vital role to play. If considered virtually, only one successful seed (or two if the species is dioecious) would serve to replace the parent tree(s); hence the production of seeds during the lifetime of a tree is absurd. A full-grown Eucalyptus camaldulensis tree may produce a million or more seeds per year and live further, producing seeds for over a century. Each year’s production could help afforest

The forest cover in most tropical countries has been under severe pressure and is diminishing at an alarming speed; consequently, they are experiencing severe biodiversity losses, reverting to a mature state at a slower rate with low resiliency. These tropical countries are aware of the danger causing due to the loss of forests, and large afforestation programmes have been launched by forest departments, private companies, and donor-supported projects. Nevertheless, plantation activities have rarely been able to keep pace with the deforestation rate, not to mention replacing what has been lost during the past. Plantation programme through afforestation activity is not only the matter of the forest department alone but also the combined responsibility of all the foresters. The appeal of forest planting has changed over the years following the broader demand spectrum.

To some extent, the forest plantations fail to create the diversity of plants and wildlife that has been lost. Hitherto, large-scale plantations are still necessary both directly to cater to the needs of industrial wood and help to minimize the pressure on the remaining natural forests. During the past decades, many government programmes have emphasized using 

Global warming is the hottest issue facing life in our times. The gradual average increase in air temperatures near Earth’s surface over the past one to two centuries is leading to the phenomenon called global warming. It is this global phenomenon that triggers climate change, threatening the entire life on Earth. Earth’s climate has changed over all conceivable geological timescales, but that was all on account of the natural phenomenon. But, human activities are making the phenomenon more pronounced since the beginning of the Industrial Age, now emerging as a dominant triggering factor in influencing the overall climate fabric of the planet.

Radioactive pollution is largely attributable to radioactivity, a natural property of certain elements, such as radium, uranium, thorium, etc. of spontaneously emitting protons (alpha particles), electrons (beta particles), and gamma rays (short-wave electromagnetic waves) through the disintegration of their atomic nuclei (nuclides).

An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons, which is akin to a helium nucleus. Alpha particles travel at a very slow speed, whereas gamma rays propagate at the speed of light. The alpha particles have less penetration power than the beta and gamma rays. In human tissues, alpha particles can penetrate up to a depth of about 0.005 to 0.008 cm. The gamma rays, on the other hand, are the most penetrating and can easily pass through a human body without striking anything in between. The high penetration power of gamma rays is because they have no charge; therefore, they do not interact with anything as the charged alpha particles would do

A sound is a form or energy. Therefore, it has to have an impact on life in one way or the other. Most of the organisms of Kingdom Animalia communicate with each other creating a peculiar sound. Creating sound is inevitable for performing various life activities. Every animal species has the characteristic sound it reflects through its behavior. Whatever all the animals communicate through creating specific sounds is all-natural. Nature, as such is a stupendous repository of a diversity of sounds, all being specific characteristics of life.

Human behavior, however, is highly evolved in terms of creating a variety of sounds. Communication, entertainment, and many behavioral activities are expressed through creating distinctive sounds. There is a difference between natural sounds and the ones human beings create or can create. Humans often generate sounds, not just in a natural manner, but also with various technical aids, that often become unpleasant what we call noise. Creating noise, or noise pollution, seems to be an exclusive characteristic of the human species. Of course, there could be some natural sounds that might occasionally cause havoc to life. Examples are the sounds generated at the time of the volcanic eruption, during an earthquake

Life on Earth is rooted in soil. Soil is not just a substratum anchoring the plants and giving a base for all terrestrial animals. It is the largest terrestrial ecosystem, and one of the most wonderful ecosystems on Earth. It inhabits most microorganisms. Microbial populations flourishing within the soil have greater biomass than all the human beings, elephants, and whales put together. It is due to the microorganisms that the soil constitutes the most active ecosystem on Earth.

The health of the soil is crucial for the health of all the plants growing on it and for all the animals dependent on it for their inhabitation and nourishment. Soil health is also critical for the well-being of numerous microorganisms, detritivores, and several other organisms. Soil is composed of all essential nutrients/ minerals, air, water, and organisms in a proportion that strikes its ecological balance and maintains its structure and functions revealed through its productive potential.

Soil, like all other ecosystems, is itself a dynamic ecosystem. Its composition keeps changing but natural inbuilt mechanisms help strike a balance and recover 

Ours is a Living Planet because ours is a Water Planet. The health of the Living Planet depends on the health of its water resources. Ironically, the health of its water resources is at stake. And so of its life! The waters of the Earth are in the grips of pollution. Much of the water is already polluted and the rest is increasingly becoming polluted. Water pollution, indeed, is one of the worst problems life on Earth is faced with. Water pollution is halting human progress and is phenomenally affecting all walks of human civilization. Water pollution is even putting a question mark on our sustainable future. This chapter presents the causes, magnitude, and consequences of water pollution and also suggests ways and means to prevent and control water pollution and also attempts to manage water resources.

Air or atmosphere constitutes one of the integral components of the environment. Among all the environmental components, the air has the highest fluidity. Therefore, the entry of a foreign substance into the air imparts a quick and severe effect on the health of the organisms. Air in the biosphere has a mixture of various gases in a dynamic proportion which is conducive to maintaining the health and sustenance of all living organisms. An alteration in the composition of the atmosphere beyond a certain limit adversely affects organisms’ health, and might even be of more serious consequences for life.

Air pollution, thus, is defined as the occurrence of undesirable gases (e.g., carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, etc.) or particles (e.g., suspended particulate matter) in such concentrations that are deleterious to terrestrial life (vegetation, animals, and human beings) and some physical assets, like buildings, statues, and monuments. Air pollution especially affects the health of human beings living in highly modified (anthropogenic) ecosystems, e.g., cities and industrial areas.

We are living in a world that is in a grim state of environmental disruptions. Callous developmental activities resulting in pollution of all environmental components and gradually culminating in global warming, climate change, and species extinction are responsible for triggering the processes of environmental disruption. Pollution of air, water, and soil is rapidly assuming alarming proportions.

The very processes of socioeconomic development are now posing threat to economic progress as well as to human health. Ominous changes in global climate are posing threat to life on Earth. The irony is that the major cause of environmental disruptions is anthropogenic rather than natural. Human’s materialistic progress and environmental pollution in our contemporary world go hand in hand.

Example: Isolation and Characterization of Protease Inhibitor Gene and Promoter from Black gram (Vigna mungo L.) and Genetic Transformation and Molecular Analysis of Transgenic Tobacco

The genetic information which makes up the genes of higher plants is stored in DNA sequences of the nuclear chromosomes and the organelle genome. There is such an enormous amount of DNA in higher plant cell, that no two organisms are likely to be identical in DNA base sequence. 

Developments in recombinant DNA technology have made it possible to transfer gene from any source across species barrier. In fact, transfer and expression of foreign genes in plant cells is now a routine procedure. Of the several methods tried so far, the system based on Ti plasmid of Aprobacterium tumefaciens appears to be most successful for transformation of plant cells.

Protoplasts are cells which have had their cell wall removed, usually by digestion with enzymes. Cellulase enzymes digest the cellulose in plant cell walls while pectinase enzymes break down the pectin holding cells together. Once the cell wall has been removed the resulting protoplast is spherical in shape. Digestion is usually carried out after incubation in an osmoticum (a solution of higher concentration than the cell contents which causes the cells to plasmolyse). This makes the cell walls easier to digest. Debris is filtered and/or centrifuged out of the suspension and the protoplasts are then centrifuged to form a pellet. On resuspension the protoplasts can be cultured on media which induce cell division and differentiation.

DNA can be sequenced in both double stranded and single stranded templates by cloning in plasmid or phage vectors. There are two sequencing methods.

M13 is a single stranded filamentous DNA phage. Vectors have been developed from M13 phase by Joachim Messing (1983), which are suitable for preparation of single stranded DNA required for sequencing by Sanger’s method. These are derivatives of M13 wild type (size 6.407 kb).

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a very powerful new method used for in vitro to amplify a deoxynibonuclic specific region that lies between two regions of known DNA sequence single molecule to million folds in short time. This is achieved by an enzyme taq. DNA polymerase which is thermostable using this enzyme can synthesize microgram quantities of DNA of specified length and sequence from pictogram quantities of complex template in a few hours time.

Complementary DNA (cDNA) is a double stranded DNA which is an exact copy of the mRNA, i.e. it consists of group of molecules possessing the information contained in various mRNAs but with termini equivalent to or related to those produced by restriction endonucleases. The use of cDNA is an absolute prerequisite for the expression of eukaryotic proteins in bacteria.

Recombinant DNA is advancement in molecular technology which allows manipulation of genomes of higher organisms and dissection of their complex regulatory circuits. This new methodology is being used to understand the biochemistry of living organisms. The isolation of gene begins with the cloning of fragmented DNA of the organism into appropriate vector. 

Exchange of genetic material rarely occurs between unreleated organisms and even similar species may not exchange chromosomal genes. A certain degree of DNA sequence homology is a prerequisite for genetic recombination in vivo. However, recombination between DNA molecules in vitro is not subject to such taxonomic restrictions.

Nucleic acid hybridization requires denaturation i.e. the breakage of H-bridges between the complementary strands of the DNA either by heating at high temperatures or by treatment with denaturing chemicals like formamide. The restricted DNA, therefore, is denatured before transfer from the gel onto synthetic membrane since only single stranded DNA binds to nitrocellulose.

DNA fragment to be used as a probe should be purified by gel electrophoresis. The band can be located after staining with ethidium bromide and electroeluted.

The in vitro radioactive labeling of DNA fragment is accomplished by the incorporation of a radioactive nucleotide during strand synthesis with Klenow enzyme (large subunit of DNA polymerase-I).

Polysomes consist of two or more ribosome traversing a strand of mRNA, translating the nucleotide sequence into the corresponding amino acid sequence. Usually at any time, many ribosomes are translating an mRNA simultaneously forming a structure called a polyribosome or polysomes. One reason for isolating polyribosomes is to resolve them on sucrose gradients to determine the extent of ribosome loading. The second main reason is to provide a source of mRNA for in vitro translation.

RNA is transcriptional product of DNA. The total RNA includes three classes, rRNA, tRNA and mRNA. The ribonucleic acids exists as ribonucleo protein particles in intact cells. The ribonucleo protein complex is dissociated by SDS in to RNA and protein deproutinised by phenol and the free RNA left in the aqueous solution is precipitated in cold by adding alcohol. 

There are various methods available for isolation of high molecular weight genomic DNA from plants. The basic steps involved in all these methods are removal of cell wall, nuclear membrane, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, cell debris, RNA without affecting the integrity of DNA. The two major factors that affect DNA integrity are action of endogenous nucleases and impact of mechanical shearing.

Enterobacteria phage ? is a bacterial virus, or bacteriophage, that infects the bacterial species Escherichia coli (E.coli). It was discovered by Esther Lederberg in 1950. The wild type of this virus has a temperate life cycle that allows it to either reside within the genome of its host through lysogeny or enter into a lytic phase, during which it kills and lyses the cell to produce offspring. Lambda strains, mutated at specific sites, are unable to lysogenize cells; instead, they grow and enter the lytic cycle after superinfecting an already lysogenized cell.

This is a procedure for transforming bacterial cells with circular DNA plasmids containing an origin of autonomous DNA replication and a selective marker (antibiotic resistance). Logarithmically growing cells are made permeable to DNA by incubation in CaCl2 and the DNA is taken up from the surrounding buffer.

Plasmid is a double stranded, self replicating, circular extra chromosomal DNA of bacterium. It is used in recombinant DNA experiments to clone genes from other organisms and make large quantities of their DNA. Plasmid can be transferred between same species or between different species. The sizes of plasmids range from 1-1000 kbps. Plasmids are part of mobilomes (total of all mobile genetic elements in a genome) like transposons or prophages and are associated with conjugation.

Plant biotechnology can be defined as the introduction of desirable traits into plants through plant tissue culture and genetic engineering techniques. The recombinant DNA technology is used to modify the expression of genes already present in the plants or to introduce new genes of other species with which the plant cannot be bred conventionally.

Non-Response

Non response occurs when respondents are not available or do not occur in the survey and refuse to respond by any means. This non response is mainly of two types either item non response or unit non response.

If we are conducting an online survey and mailing a questionnaire to various persons. But sometimes we get a reply for some questions and sometimes not i.e., in case of questions in which income is concerned. In some cases, the mail is ignored due to lack of time. So, if the whole questionnaire is ignored by any means, then it is known as non-response and if some of the questions are ignored due to their fussy nature such type of response is known as a unit non response. Such types of non-response problems are very common in surveys. Whenever we carry out a survey non response always exists because it is almost impossible to get every response from each individual.

The individual chosen for the sample is not ready to participate in the survey is known as non-response. This type of selection bias is unit/item non response.

In our previous chapters, we have discussed various sampling designs or techniques such as simple random sampling, stratified sampling, systematic sampling and cluster sampling recently we have discussed unequal probability sampling i.e., probability proportional to size sampling. In all these sampling designs the variable of interest (generally there is only one variable of interest) which we have considered and perform our estimation based on that single variable. There are some other variables which are related to our variable of interest and if we utilize those variables, we may gain some efficiency in our estimator i.e., if we take some correlated variables with our variable of interest or study variable by this, we can enhance our estimation. The variable which is correlated with the study variable is usually known auxiliary variable or supporting variable or supplementary variable or benchmark variable. This auxiliary variable is utilized in two stages either in the design stage or estimation stage.

Graunt (1662) was the first who used auxiliary information to estimate the population size of England. After this Laplace used auxiliary information for the estimation of the population in France.

Introduction

In some practical field situations, the results are described by some percentages or proportions. In agricultural field conditions, if any disease prevalence is to find then in the form of percentage or proportion, we can say how much disease rate is present i.e., 10 % or may be any other. So, in those situations, we need to describe our results in proportions. Similarly, in many fields such as medical sciences, social sciences and other allied sciences this type of results in proportions we need to describe.

Yet now we have discussed probability sampling techniques in which sampling units are assigned with equal probabilities. But sometimes in practice if want to draw a sample with unequal probabilities i.e., every sampling unit is assigned with varying probabilities and we draw a sample from these units with the help of equal probability methods, then the results are not as much efficient as compared to unequal probability sampling.

Simple random sampling is a procedure wherein the chance of selection of every unit in the required sample is equal. However, the use of simple random sampling is not advisable when the units differ substantially in size as the significance of unit size is ignored.

The basic idea of this type of probability technique is that chance of each unit of a population being selected in the sampling is proportional to its size. The units vary significantly in size and the variable under study is largely related to the size of the unit. Therefore, the probabilities fixed for each unit are proportional to their sizes.

Non-Probability sampling methods are also known as non-random sampling methods or deliberate sampling. These types of methods are reliant on the researcher’s ability to select members at random. These sampling methods are not fixed or pre-defined selection processes making it difficult for all elements of the population to have equal opportunities to be included in the sample.

Types of non-probability sampling techniques

1. Judgmental or Purposive sampling

This technique involves the purposive selection of units of samples based on the judgement of the researcher. The researcher selects the sample on the basis of his a priori knowledge and experience.

Multistage Sampling

Multistage sampling is a form of random sampling where samples are selected in a sequence of stages. Where each sample is drawn from the exclusive previously selected samples. This sampling is not done once but at multiple stages. It differs from cluster sampling in the sense that cluster uses all the subjects within a cluster whereas multistage selects a sample from within the selected group. Groups are randomly chosen from a population; subgroups from these groups are randomly chosen and then randomly chosen to be surveyed.

This is an extension of cluster sampling, which is carried out in multiple stages say two, three or four stages. In the first stage, the universe is divided into some clusters from which certain clusters are selected at random at the first stage samples. In the second stage, the selected first stage samples are again subdivided into some clusters from which again certain clusters are selected at random as the second stage samples. In the third stage, the selected second stage samples are again subdivided into some clusters from which certain clusters are again selected at random as the third stage samples.

Cluster Sampling (Meaning and Concept)

Cluster sampling is a special type of sampling which is used when we have to make a large survey such as a survey for the whole country and whole state etc. to know the privilege. Under this method, the total population is divided into some recognizable subdivisions known as clusters. Out of all the clusters, a given number of clusters are chosen at random. All the items covered by the selected clusters are included in the sample.

A sampling technique in which we divide the whole population into groups or subgroups in such a way that there is heterogeneity within each group and homogeneity among the groups and then a simple random sample of n groups is selected from a total of N groups of population and finally all the units of selected clusters from our sample.

Systematic Sampling (Meaning and Concept)

In this chapter, we are going to discuss the systematic random sampling technique. This is a random / probability / quantitative sampling method. In our previous chapter, we discussed the stratified random sampling technique. We have said that this technique is used when the population is heterogeneous and needs to be stratified into homogeneous groups. We have also discussed steps to be followed when using stratified random sampling as well as the strengths and limitations of stratified random sampling. Systematic sampling is a commonly employed technique if a complete and up-to-date list of the sampling units is available. The procedure involves choosing the very first object arbitrarily and the remaining members of the sample will be selected naturally according to any pre-decided sequence containing regular spacing of units. In this method, units of the population are numerically, geographically, and alphabetically arranged either in ascending or descending order (generally ascending order is preferred). When the ordering of the elements is related to the characteristic of interest,

Stratified Sampling (Meaning and Concept)

The word ‘stratify’ comes from the Latin word, meaning ‘to make layers’, thus in stratified sampling the whole population is considered to be classified into some mutually exclusive layers or subgroups or classes also called strata. The strata do not overlap and they constitute the whole population.

Why the population is considered to be divided into different strata (or layers or subgroups or classes)?

Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

Simple random sampling is probability sampling and refers to a technique of sampling where each and every unit of the population have an equal and independent opportunity of being selected and included in the sample during the sampling. In the SRS the selection of the sample depends on the chance factor and is also known as the method of probability sampling.

There are two ways in which SRS can be performed:

• SRSWR: Simple Random Sampling With Replacement
• SRSWOR: Simple Random Sampling Without Replacement

Sample Design

Sample design is a specific system for obtaining a sample from a given population. For the effective planning and sample survey, this sample design is the framework or road map that serves as the basis for the selection of the survey sample and affects many other important aspects of a survey as well. It is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. Sampling design refers to the procedure that the researcher would adopt in selecting items as the sample. Also, sampling design is a working plan that specifies the sample frame, sample size, sample selection and estimation method in detail. The blueprint for obtaining a sample from the sampling frame and this technique used in drawing a sample is known as sample design or sampling design. This whole process is done before the determination of data collection.

Basic thought of Sampling

The data is very important in every field for decision making whether it is medical sciences, engineering sciences, agricultural sciences and management sciences etc. for this we need to plan the correct data. If we don’t have correct data then based on that we cannot plan good decisions and it will provide misleading results. So, to achieve or plan the right data it is necessary to have the right technique which is to be used while collecting data and an appropriate method of data collection is preferred. From this, the two important questions arise (i) what are those methods required to obtain paramount data or sample and (ii) how best to use the data or sample to estimate the characteristic of the whole population i.e., what are those methods by which we can study our population parameters to draw a proper statistical inference.

‘Extension’ acts as a potential link between ‘research’ and ‘teaching’ which also facilitates transfer of technology. In this context new concepts, like Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) are becoming more meaningful now-a-days.

Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA)
i) RRA can be defined as a systematic but semi-structured study, carried out in the field by a multi-disciplinary team over a short period ranging from three days to three weeks, based on information collected in advance from published and/or unpublished sources, direct observations and interviews as to generate working hypotheses for subsequent action
ii) RRA study aims at generating information on rural life and conditions that is relevant, timely, accurate and usable in

A. Circular letter
• Circular letter is a quick and cheap method of communication.
• It is a letter reproduced and sent to many people by the extension worker, to publicize an extension activity (like meeting, exhibits etc.) or to give information on farm and home problems.
• Circular letter could be used as a mail before organizing any campaign or extension work.
• It is sent from extension wing weekly or fortnightly to maintain regular contact with the farmers depending upon

Women account for 43% of the agricultural labor force in developing countries (FAO, 2011) and produce 50% of the global food production (FAO, 2011). Regional statistics reveal that in Latin America about, 20 percent, in Asia, about 30 to 60 percent, and in Sub-Saharan Africa, 50 to 75 percent of the agricultural labour force is supplied by women (FAO, 2013). Moreover, they invest 10 times more than their male counterpart in the family well being especially education and nutrition of children (Maertens and Verhofstadt, 2013). Despite being the primary contributors for the world food production, their roles are highly underestimated. Considerable gender bias exists in the agricultural sector, both in terms of quantities of assets, agricultural inputs and resources that women
control (Deere et al., 2013). Failure to recognize the roles, differences and inequities [between men and women] poses a serious threat to the effectiveness of the agricultural development agenda

1. Introduction
“Educational Technology is the application of scientific knowledge about learning and the conditions of learning to improve the effectiveness of teaching and training. In the absence of scientifically established principles, educational technology implements techniques of empirical testing to improve learning situation”.
Educational technology includes numerous types of media that deliver text, audio, images, animation, streaming video that includes technology applications and processes such as computer-based learning as well as local intranet/ extranet and web-based learning. Information and communication systems whether freestanding or based on either local networks or the internet in

Introduction
India with exceeding population of 1027.01 million with 741 million living in rural areas is on the path of development. The lack of access to and control over resources is said to be cause of poverty (Satapathy and  Mishra, 2011).
Women form half of our society. They have significant role in overall development. Rural development concept in our country attaches more importance to women empowerment. To combat poverty ‘self help promotion’ is of recent paradigm that has attracted attention to sections of the society.

Group Discussion
Group discussion is the method by which two or more persons meet, express or suggest their ideas for getting the solution to the felt problems by them.
Objectives of group Discussion
• To develop the democratic leadership among the members.
• To conduct the systematic group discussion to solve the problems.
• To give opportunity to each member to share experiences.
• To promote the habit of talking, thinking, group planning and group action.
• To identify the group and focus the public interest and mobilize them for group action.

The following is the plan of action to hold Animal Health Camps
1. Attempt will be made to hold at Gram Panchayat level.
2. Before 2-3 days monadi of camps must be do.
3. The camp will be held for 1 day. It will start by 7 AM and close at 2 PM.
4. The venue should be selected so that it is in the central location to get cases from 3-4 villages in order to provide facilities of clinical examination, pathological tests, etc.
5. The venue should be centrally located and easily accessible to the general public.

Awareness campaign should help educate your community on a specific subject by sharing basic information and providing examples. This will help community members have healthy conversations and increase awareness. This will begin the prevention process. Any awareness campaign should include following step;
1. Choose Your Topic Or Goals
2. Find Your Resources: Awareness campaigns take a lot of resources. You might have a set budget to implement your campaign. Money is not the only resource you will be using. Resources such as time, marketing and promotional material etc also needed for successful completion of campaign.
3. Segment Your Audience
4. Create a Schedule of Events, Programs, and Initiatives

Principle of construction of flash cards
• Flash cards are non-projected visual aid in which series of illustrated cards are flashed as presented in a proper sequence to explain complete story.
• The story must be familiar, with specific heading and suggestions at the last.
• Simple words and local expressions should be used in flash cards.
• Total number of flash cards must be 10 -12 which are easy to remember to farmers
• Card: Select white or light coloured thick paper.
• Flash card should be large enough for everyone to see at least 22 x 28 inches and simple line drawing or photographs or cartoons having plenty of colours.
• Content: Each set should have a title card. The story should be divided into a number of scenes,

Principle of construction of poster making
A poster is to be bold in design, simple to understand and attractive in colour. Poster is displayed in a public place with the purpose of creating awareness amongst the people. A poster is generally seen from a distance and the person glancing at to get first idea about it. Construction of poster making should be based on following components.
1. Pictures 2. Words 3. Space 4. Colors 5. Layout

a) Picture or illustration
1. Picture should be drawn in such a way that produce message clearly.