eChapters

The word mulch was coined by Wagganor in 1960. It is derived from the German word ‘molsch’ means “easy to decay,” and mulches have widely been used for vegetable production since ancient times (Lightfoot 1994). Therefore the term mulching refers to the practice of covering the soil surface with different organic and inorganic materials, known as mulch materials to reduce moisture loss, balance wide variations in diurnal soil temperatures especially in the root zone, control weeds, insect-pests and diseases and finally enhance crop yield (Nalayini 2007; Kader et al. 2019).

Increasing population, declining natural resources, changing climate and political stability are the major threat to our food, nutritional as well as environmental security. It is expected that India’s population will boom to 1.5 billion by 2030 and to feed them we need approximately 341mt food grain including 315 mt cereals and 26mt pulses) (Kumar et al., 2016).

Due to continuous pressure on our food security even after independence, the cultivation has been expanded to marginal and sub marginal lands that are prone to different types of erosion. Though the rainfed farming is based on the erratic and uneven rainfall, it contributes nearly 50% food grain, 90% oilseeds and pulses and 65% cotton production.

Rainfed agriculture occupies about 1.22 billion hectare (Bha) area worldwide, which is about 82% of total area (1.5 Bha) under agriculture (Yadav et al., 2006) and contributes nearly 58% to the global food basket. It is practiced under a wide variety of agro-climatic, edaphic and socio-economic conditions and globally, rainfed agriculture accounts for more than 95% of farmed land in sub-Saharan Africa, 90% in Latin America, 75% in the Near East and North Africa; 65% in East Asia and 60% in South Asia (Singh et al., 2018). 

Drought is a recurrent feature of climate or climatic anomaly or weather related natural disaster. It occurs when the precipitation remains deficient over an extended period of time, usually for a season or more and affects water shortage in water bodies, streams, soil moisture, ground water etc. resulting into low crop production and economic performance of large regions or entire country. Drought occurs in virtually all regions varying its severity, low and high from regions to regions.

Land, water and weather are natural resources that are critical for survival. Modern agriculture requires precise information on various agro-climatic parameters like soil, crop, climate and water resources for formulating efficient agricultural planning. Out of these, water is considered most scarce input in agriculture because its availability is reducing drastically for agriculture as well as drinking purposes. Besides, declining water tables and deteriorating quality of water resources caused pollution and sewage and effluents have further multiplied the problems.

Out of 329 m ha geographical area in the country, 187.8 m ha or 53% is affected by various forms of degradation process which include 148.9 m ha affected by water erosion, 13.5 m ha by wind erosion, 13.8 m ha by chemical deterioration and 11.6 m ha by physical deterioration. The annual loss of topsoil is nearly 16.0 t/ha/year resulted in to 8.4 m t/year total nutrient loss. 

Bread, cloth and house (Roti, Kapra and Makan) are the basic need of human life and linked directly with agriculture because agriculture provides livelihood for nearly two-thirds of the population in India and it currently accounts for 14.2% of the GDP and also employs 55% of country’s total workforce. The sharp fluctuations in agricultural growth are mainly attributed to the vagaries of monsoon. Rainfed agriculture is spread over 55% of net cultivated area, contributing over 40% to the national agricultural production.

Soil is generally defined as the upper layer of earth in which plants grow. It is regarded as a source of nourishment to all animals, moving or static. From agriculture or crop production point of view, soil is loose earth surface that supports vegetation, its quality, type and density. It is generally treated as a dynamic living entity and its physic-biochemical properties are responsible for its nutritional index. Precision production technology with suitable management is the key factors for its longer sustainability.

India comes in a tropical region and so it has a tropical monsoonal climate. The climate of India is governed by mountain ranges as well as direction of rain winds like south-west and north-east monsoon and alternate season is the main feature of Indian climate. Climate in South India is generally hotter and extremely humid than that of North India.

Water is essential for life and most of the civilization flourished on bank of rivers like Indus valley, Mesopotamia, May, INCA and also destroyed in lack of water. Scarcities and famines were the common phenomena of the world civilization. Systematic dry cultivation started around 1850 and improved techniques were started in use in USA. 

Rainfed agriculture constitutes 80% of global agriculture and plays a critical role in achieving global food security. However, growing world population, water scarcity, and climate change threaten rainfed farming through increased vulnerability to 1 droughts and other extreme weather events. Out of the total population of 7.3 billion, about 1 billion are food insecure and 60% of these live in South Asia and Sub Saharan Africa.

Symptoms of pale or yellow-green leaves (chlorosis) first occur in the older leaves. At the leaf margins reaching toward the midrib or central vein, reddish tints gradually emerge. The leaves are thin. Growth overall is markedly reduced. Deficiency results in rhizome yield loss.

Black nose is used for the unusually shrinking and darker date end. The most susceptible cultivars for this physiological state are Deglet Nour and Hayani. The black nose result is an over exam of the epidermis, in particular many little cross-sectional exams or ruptures near the end of the style of the foetus. There is a substantial shrinkage and darkening in proportion to the quantity of the controls and moist conditions on Khalaal level are related to them.

The presence of nuts in the kernel is known as stubborn nuts or seedless or imperfect nuts and is frequent in coconut (Cocos nucifera L.). The nozzles impacted are oblong compared with the typical circular form of the nozzles and less than normal husk is generated. The often-breaking shell over the course of the development is the most typical feature of the barren nut. 

Little leaf of cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is caused due to the deficiency of zinc. The leaves remain small in size giving rosette appearance.

Smaller leaves are produced and finally a rosette is formed. Internodal length reduction and apex-tapering of the stem. Most of the nuts are tiny and deformed, assuming they are produced. Drainage is poor and soil and pan/hard clay pan fertility are low.

An anomaly characterized by numerous leaves, short petioles and small laminae that offer a bushy appearance known as bushiness to some gerbera cultivars. The nodes are not clearly differentiated and no elongation of the internode is seen.

The calyx may be either half or entirely broken. The petals are stripped of their support, which contributes to the petals being bent down. The continuity of the form and arrangement of the flower is thus lost. Splitting, particularly where light and temperature fluctuate is correlated with weather. By maintaining the night temperature at 5 ° F, some reduction in splitting can be achieved. More calyx splits were caused by high plant density per unit area. 

Gladiolus is a fluoride pollution indicator plant, as it expresses the effects of fluorine at very low levels. Symptoms of scorching of the leaves look like drying of the tips of the leaves. A strong application of super phosphate is also associated with fluoride toxicity. By spraying 5 percent lime or Magnesium sulphate, it decreases

Leaves in the centres appear bleached and may have brown edges. Shade should be provided to reduce the light level to 1800-2500-foot candles to control this problem.

The normal blooming stem on the greenhouse rose has fully developed sepals, petals and reproductive organs. The inability to build a bloom at the apical end of the stem is a typical phenomenon which in such shoots is termed blind. There are sepals and petals; however, they are not complete or aborted in the reproductive portions.

Ordinarily, fruit bears a single crown, but fruit bears more than one in some cases. The top of the fruit will therefore be smooth and wide and the fruit will not be ideal for canning. These fruits have an insipid taste and are corky. It is intended to be an inherited character, often found in the Cayenne group to which the Kew variety belongs.

Fruit cracking is a serious problem of pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) particularly in arid climate. Cracked fruits are sweet but unfit for long distance transportation. Incidence of cracked fruits varies from 10 to 70 % depending upon the prevailing environmental conditions. Longitudinal or radial splitting of rind surface occurs.

Fruit cracking is an important physiological disorder found in some commercial cultivars of Bael (Aegle marmelos), which occurs just before the ripening stage. It is correlated with abrupt changes, such as temperature and humidity, in weather conditions. Heavy irrigation or precipitation is also one of the causes of this disease after prolonged drought.

Internal necrosis has been observed in Aonla (Emblica officinalis Gaertn.) fruits. Francis cultivar, preceded by Banarsi, is highly susceptible. The symptoms begin with browning of the inner majority of the mesocarpic tissue in the 2nd or 3rd week of September at the time of endocarp hardening, which later spreads to the epicarp, resulting in brownish black flesh appearance. Internal fruit necrosis is associated with boron deficiency during the fruit development.

Twitching is a condition occurring predominantly on the surface of the fruit which is exposed to direct sunlight; however, it is not well understood what the source of the disease is. Growth in immature fruits cannot be detected during later stages of fruit maturity. On cv. Golden Solo Party there are a few examples. This is termed the “frog skin” or “fox skin.” It shows on the fruit’s surface as the Dark Brown Flecks. 

Bronzing is a complex nutritional condition in guava (Psidium guajava L.). It manifests in the interveinal tissue of older leaves as bronze or copper colour development, while terminal leaves remain green. This is attributable to the inadequacy of elements P, K and Zn. Bad management and low soil fertility coupled with soil acidity are often due to it.

This is primarily a physiological condition and, after heavy rains or heavy irrigation during hot weather, is mostly due to high atmospheric humidity. Two forms of splitting have been found, namely radial and transverse. There is more frequent radial cracking than transverse cracking. While splitting down to the inner core is very unusual, partial splitting is more prevalent.

It’s because it impacts the active development of the plant at a low temperature. Yellowing of the leaves and severe destruction of the tissue. In cases of flowering plants, the stalk carrying the bunches freely lengthens and drapes down the complete inflorescence.

In grape growing areas in many parts of the world this illness is a very popular disorder. In this disorder, a bold beer is surrounded by shoot berries, and the name of the hen and of the chicken disorder is like a hen, as bold berry and chicken. The fruit has a sour taste. The signs are the death of rising tips, falling leaves and the fragility of new shoots. With the development of interveinal chlorosis between the edges, the leaves may be deformed, and this is particularly evident after fruiting.

In the flesh of the fruit, tiny, 2-10 mm (depending on the cultivar) brown blemishes form. Below the surface, the tissue gets black and corky. At harvest or after cold storage, the skin develops depressed patches on the surface. These tend to develop as water-soaked patches on the skin around the calyx. Overall, these patches became darker and sunken than the skin around and developed entirely after one to two months in storage.

Problems are low fruiting / non fruiting / irregular fruiting in the country’s litchi farming area. The potential of bear litchi has been identified as variety, although some of the bearing terminals in the present year will be more active in the next year (70-95 percent).

This is one of the most serious difficulties in mango farming since it makes mango agriculture less rewarding for farmers. In one year (a year) and very little or no harvest next year, mango trees appear to bear huge crops (off year). This bieniality is therefore also present in normal ranges (Singh, 1990). 

In several cucurbits as well as other crops, BER is a physiological condition found (for example, tomato, brinjal and pepper). It typically occurs as a general rot at the flowering end of rising fruit. Usually, the blossom end rot is the result of inadequate or uneven irrigation, high humidity, or other variables that slow the flow of water through the plant. Slow water movement may also result in temporary calcium deficiencies leading to blossom end rot as calcium is added into the plant with the transpiration stream.

Tip-burn is the marginal collapse and necrosis of rapidly spreading inner lettuce leaves, at or near the leaf margins. Typically, the condition occurs near harvest, when it may lead to complete crop failure. Early signs include discoloration of the veins and/or the growth of dark brown to black spots near or at the margins of the leaves. The necrotic areas coalesce as the disease progresses, creating a lesion up to several centimeters long.

When the soil temperature stays at or below 20 0 C, seeds germinate poorly. During early spring-summer planting, this issue of seed germination occurs when seeds are to be sown at low temperature conditions.

There is secondary elongating growth in the roots that gives a form of fork like structure to the root. This occurs in heavy soil due to soil compactness. An elongated radish root is encouraged by un-decomposed organic manure. It can be fixed by decreasing field moisture, balanced irrigation and also by sowing radish and carrot in sandy loam or light soil with loose and friable soil in nature.

In general, germination of onion seeds is poor, and, in the case of old seed stocks, this problem is severe. Seeds soon lost viability in the ordinary storage state. However, cold storage conditions significantly increase the viability of seeds.

Browning is due to boron deficiency caused. In general, boron deficiency symptoms in the formation of the curd, the plant externally visible. In the early stages, immersion in water and curd in the stem region of the surface occurs. As plant growth, into the hollow, soaked in water covers the cavity inner wall tissue. In the absence of progressive steps, areas of brown or pink color are visible, and hence, it is also called brown or reddish-brown or dark brown rot affected by the bitter taste. D

Blossom end rot is a very common problem on green and ripe tomatoes. It started with light tan, water-soaked lesion, and then increased to black and tough. Although blossom blight itself caused only local damage, secondary biological invasions frequently lesions caused fruit rot complete.

Apart from insects, pests and diseases, physiological disorders are one of the major threats to fruit industry which cause financial losses global. Over-all, the problems rise due to unfavorable environmental conditions and improper cultural practices which affect the normal plant growth and development is called as physiological disorders of plant. Ladaniya (2008) stated that the physiological disorder is that it is a function of physiological processes fruit tissue abnormality or failure due to abiotic stress, such as temperature, relative humidity, water stress, chemicals/ nutritional excess and deficiency.

Physiological plant disorder is caused by non-pathological conditions such as poor light, weather damage, waterlogging or lack of nutrients affect the operation of the system caused. Physiological condition selected from diseases caused by plant pathogens such as viruses or fungi to distinguish. Although the physiological disorder symptoms may occur such as disease, they can often be prevented by changes in environmental conditions. However, once the nutritional deficiencies of plants showing symptoms, is likely to return that season yield will be reduced.

Small size grains namely millets are produced by extraneous grasses and the word millet is derived from ‘‘mille’ a French word synonymous to thousand indicating handful of millet grains in a handful measure contains thousand grains (Taylor and Emmambux, 2008). Small millets and pseudo cereals belong to Gramineae family and were major ancient foods of Asian and African continents while Western countries used them as only bird feed.

To constantly move towards advancement, points towards the addition to the tradition that converts to modernization. Today with the drawing waves risking health and diet of an individual, there is a constant demand of rolling back the traditional grains which lost its significance with the turning over of era. Family Amaranthaceae for a long time with the turn of events existed among the staple diets of people in different regions of Asia as China, Africa, America and some parts of India due to its complementary effects with different cuisines as well as the nutrient fulfillment (Olawuyi et al., 2016).

food, known to have been cultivated before 6000 BC in whole Andean region, Columbia, Peru, Equador, Bolivia before the conquest of Spanish. Incas have called this crop as a mother grain and was considered sacred. But in course of time, Catholics have suppressed the cultivation of crop after discovering it as a sacred drink during various religious ceremonies and hence the crop remained in the places where European could not reach (Vega Galvez, 2010).

Chia seed is an ancestral crop having fascinating history of 5500 years. It was the third most important grain of pre-columbian society. Chia seed is common name given to species of Salvia. Salvia hispanica, Salvia columbariae and Salvia polystachya are most important species among all Salvia seeds. Salvia belongs to family of Lamiaceaeis, first native to Mexico and later introduced to Spain by Hernan Cortes (Ortiz de Montellano, 1978), but in next 200 years 17 chia became virtually unknown to human and required research to establish the nutritional aspects of chia and reintegrate as food in modern diet.

Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Möench) is an annual pseudocereal crop belonging to the genus Fagopyrum of the family Polygonaceae. Its grains belong to cereals because of their similar use and chemical composition (Campbell, 1997). Among a number of buckwheat species nine species possed agricultural and nutritional trials common buckwheat (F. esculentum) and tartary buckwheat (F. tartaricum) are frequently cultivated around the world (Krkošková and Mrázová, 2005).

Amaranth crop stands in the group of pseudocereals and it is popular for its significant nutrient content as well as attractive inflorescence. The word Amaranthus came from a Greek word “Anthor” meaning eternal or unwilting. Amaranthus belongs to family of dicotyledonous plants Amaranthaceae and is one of the multipurpose rare plants whose leaves are consumed in the form 15 of vegetable while the grains are consumed as cereals. Amaranthus being an ancient crop has been included in the human diet since the pre-colonized South American civilizations.

In recent years, pseudocereals and alternative cereal substitutes are gaining attention from agriculture, processing and consumer point of views. The 14 justification for such changes can be found in the recent thought of reextending the range of starch rich seeds available in human diet, because from world-wide perspective cereals consumption is largely restricted to the cereals wheat, rice and maize (Venskutonis and Kraujalis, 2013). In upcoming years, the increase in population can lead to an unfavorable pressure on agriculture and nutrition needs.