eChapters

Murray (1926) and Pirie (1927) first described Listeria independently. In India, animal listeriosis in sheep was first reported by Mahajan (1936) in Andhra Pradesh.

Robert Koch first isolated Erysipelothrix in 1876 from a mouse he inoculated with putrefying blood. Koch initially named the bacterium “Bacillus of mouse septicemia”. Pasteur and Dumas (1882) first isolated Erysipelothrix from the infected pigs. Friedrich Loffler (1886) first experimentally produced the infection in pigs. Rosenbach (1909) first described human erysipeloid. The nomenclature of the bacterium is changed several times and Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae was finally accepted by the scientific community in 1966. The name is originated from Greek words such as ‘erysipelas’ (red skin), ‘trix’ (hair), ‘rhusius’ (reddening) and ‘pathus’ (disease).

In 1850, Bacillus anthracis was first reported by three individuals in two different countries i.e. Delafond and Davaine in France, and Pollender in Germany. They could not establish the relationship of the bacterium with the infection. Absolute proof of the anthrax etiology as B. anthracis was established by Robert Koch during 1876-77. The name Bacillus anthracis was first coined by Cohn (1875) and the disease ‘anthrax’ was first named by Hippocrates (5th century B.C.). In Greek language meaning of ‘anthrax’ is ‘coal’ referring to the black coloured skin or blood in affected animals.

In 1882, Robert Koch first isolated the bacterium, stained with alkaline methylene blue and vesuvin as counter stain and showed its etiologic relationship with tuberculosis. Ehrlich first developed acid-fast stain in 1882 and used for better staining of the bacteria which was adopted by Robert Koch. The acid-fast staining technique was modified later by Franz Ziehl and Friedrich Neelsen, accordingly, it is known as Ziehl-Neelsen (Z-N) staining. In 1890, Koch prepared a glycerine broth extract of the tubercle bacillus, known as ‘tuberculin’. He tried to prepare it as a curative agent; but it was used later in diagnosis. In 1895, Johne and Frothingham described the first case of paratuberculosis in cattle which became known as ‘Johne’s disease’. The causative bacterium was later isolated by Twort and Ingram in 1910.

In India, bovine tuberculosis is reported from several states since 1959 (Dhanda and Lall, 1959). The bovine paratuberculosis in India was first reported by Nanda and Singh (1940) from Haryana.

The genus Clostridium belongs to the family Clostridiaceae. The genus name was originated from the Greek word ‘klo ster’, which means ‘spindle’ referring to their individual rod shape. Clostridia are gram positive, large, sporulating anaerobic rods (except C. piliforme which is gram negative). At present, there are more than 200 numbers of species under the genus Clostridium. Among them, 15 species can produce potent toxins and are considered as pathogenic for animals and human. The animal pathogenic clostridia can be classified as neurotoxic, histotoxic and enteric.

Cohn (1875) first observed and described a branching filamentous microorganism in the ‘concretions’ (coagulated mass) taken from a lacrimal canal, later identified as Actinomyces israelii. Bollinger first reported the yellow granules in jaw tissues of the cattle in 1877 and established the significance of the bacteria as the etiological agent. In 1878, Israel described the first human case. In 1879, Hartz observed the microscopic appearance of granules of Actinomyces and suggested the name Actinomyces bovis. Mosselman & Lihnaux (1890) and Wolf & Israel (1891) first isolated the bacteria in artificial laboratory media from lumpy jaw cases of cattle and human actinomycosis, respectively.

Edmond Nocard (French veterinarian) first isolated filamentous aerobic bacteria from clinical cases of ‘bovine farcy’ in 1888. In 1889, the genus Nocardia was formed by Trevisan and the bacterium originally described by Nocard was named as Nocardia farcinica. In 1891, another similar bacterium (Nocardia asteroides) was isolated by Eppinger from a human brain abscess. Initially it was thought that they are the same bacteria. On the basis of the genetic differences the separate entity was established later.

The re-examination of Nocard’s original isolate revealed the existence of two different filamentous bacteria i.e. Mycobacterium and Nocardia. The cause of ‘bovine farcy’ has been subsequently attributed to Mycobacterium. Later, it is proved that Mycobacterium farcinogenes is the actual causative agent of ‘bovine farcy’.

Streptomyces are soil-borne bacteria known for production of several antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals, antitumoral, anti-hypertensives and immunosuppressives. Krainsky (1914) first described S. griseus and named the species Actinomyces griseus. Waksman and Henrici (1948) changed the name to Streptomyces griseus.

Dermatophilus congolensis was first described from clinical case of exudative dermatitis in cattle in Congo by Van Saceghem (1915). It is primarily known as an animal pathogen causing acute, sub acute or chronic skin disease. The first cases of human infection with D. congolensis were reported in 1961 in four people who developed skin infection after handling an infected deer in USA.

The family Enterobacteriaceae belongs to the order Enterobacterial. The family comprises 25 genera such as Escherichia, Salmonella, Klebsiella, Yersinia, Proteus, Providencia, Shigella, Enterobacter, Morganella, Edwardsiella, Budvicia, Cedecea, Citrobacter, Ewingella, Hafnia, Kluyvera, Leclercia, Leminorella, Moellerella, Pantoea, Rahnella, Tatumella, Trabulsiella, Serratia and Yokenella, out of which the first 10 genera are consistent pathogenic in humans, animals and birds.

Escherichia coli

Escherichia coli were first isolated by Theodor Escherich in 1885 from the faeces of infants. It was named in honour of the German pediatrician and its major natural habitat (colon). Previously it was also known as Bacillus coli or Bacterium coli (B. coli).

Lucke (1862) first described that the bluish green discolouration of surgical dressing is associated with the presence of small vibrio like organisms. Gessard (1882) first isolated the bacteria as Pseudomonas.

Identification of the etiologic agent of glanders was performed in 1882 by isolating a bacterium from the infected liver and spleen of horse. Since its discovery, the pathogen has been classified as Loefflerella mallei, Pfeifferella mallei, Malleomyces mallei, Actinobacillus mallei, Corynebacterium mallei, Mycobacterium mallei, Pseudomonas mallei, and currently as Burkholdria mallei. The genus Burkholderia was created to accommodate former rRNA group II (Pseudomallei group) Pseudomonas bacteria. It was based on the 16S rRNA sequences, DNA-DNA homology values, cellular lipid and fatty acid composition.

Louis Pasteur (1881) first isolated the bacterium from fowl cholera outbreak and attenuated the bacteria to develop a vaccine for the chicken. Trevisan (1887) coined the generic name ‘Pasteurella’ in honour of Louis Pasteur. Lignieres (1900) proposed the name of the species according to the animals acted as the major hosts such as Pasteurella aviseptica for fowls, P. suiseptica for pigs, P. boviseptica for bovines, P. oviseptica for ovines and P. leptiseptica for rabbits. Rosenbuch and Merchant (1939) proposed the name of single species Pasteurella multocida which is in use till date.

Mannheimia is an exclusive animal pathogen and is associated with ‘shipping fever’ or bovine respiratory disease (BRD) in cattle. Kitt (1885) first described the bacterium as Bacterium bipolare multocidum isolated from shipping fever in cattle. The nomenclature was further changed into Bacillus boviseptica and finally into Pasteurella haemolytica. Based on fermentation capability of arabinose and trehalose, P. haemolytica was subdivided into two biotypes (A and T) and several capsular serotypes. The biotype A (with 12 capsular serotypes) was classified under a new genus Mannheimia due to disparities in 16S rDNA sequence, cultural and pathological characteristics.

Lignieres and Spitz first isolated Actinobacillus from the cattle with actinomycosis like condition in Argentina in 1902. The findings were also confirmed by Nocard in 1902. Later the isolated bacterium from the cattle was named as Actinobacillus lignieresii in memory of Lignieres.

Pfeiffer (1892) first isolated Haemophilus influenzae as a cause of human influenza and it is also known as ‘Pfeiffer’s bacillus’. Other workers isolated and described different species of the genus Haemophilus from animals and birds. In 1903, Friedberger, a research assistant of Pfeiffer, isolated similar kind of bacteria from prepuce of dogs which was described later as Haemophilus canis. In 1925, Mitchell isolated Haemophilus ovis from the respiratory tract of sheep. Lewis and Shope (1931) isolated and illustrated Haemophilus suis from the infected pigs. Glasser found the association between fibrinous serositis, polyarthritis in pigs (Glasser’s disease) and a small gram-negative rod as early as 1910, later became known as Haemophilus parasuis. The bacteria was first isolated by Hjarre and Wramby in 1943. De Blieck (1931) isolated a hemophilic bacterium from the birds suffering with ‘infectious coryza’ and named the bacteria as Bacillus haemoglobinophilus coryzae gallinarum. Later it became known as Haemophilus paragallinarum (Avibacterium paragallinarum).

Clinical conditions similar to brucellosis have been described since the time of Hippocrates (450 BC). J. A. Marston (1861) first described brucellosis as gastric remittent fever in Malta, the Southern European island country. Sir David Bruce (1886) first isolated small coccobacilli from an infected soldier’s spleen and purified the culture in 1887, and named Micrococcus melitensis. Later the genus was renamed as Brucella in his honour. Similarly, Bang and Stribolg (1897) first isolated Brucella abortus from abortion material of a cow. Traum in 1914 isolated Bacillus abortus suis, currently known as Brucella suis. In 1953, Brucella ovis was firs isolated in New Zealand by Budlle and Boyes from the aborted material of sheep. Carmichael and Bruner (1968) first isolated B. canis from the aborted placenta of a dog.

In India first report of ‘contagious abortion’ associated with Brucella was found in annual report (1918) of imperial veterinary research institute (presently Indian veterinary research institute), Mukteswar, Uttarakhand and later in 1942 by Polding.

Since the periods of Hippocrates and Lord Buddha cholera like symptoms was described in human. The first outbreak of cholera was described in India in 1817. Filippo Pacini (1854), an Italian anatomist, observed a gram-negative bacterium associated with human cholera. Robert Koch (1884) first isolated and confirmed the association of ‘comma-shaped bacteria’, later designated as Vibrio cholerae with the disease in Calcutta (India). In 1959, Sambhu Nath De, Professor of Pathology at Nilratan Sircar Medical College in Calcutta discovered the exotoxin produced by V. cholerae and a simple method (rabbit ligated ileal loop assay) to study the in vitro effect of exotoxins. The Ganges delta of India and Bangladesh is considered as the worst affected place with cholera although the infection is widespread throughout the world. The spread of cholera in different continents occurred through six ‘waves’ (‘pandemics’) since 1817. The current seventh pandemic (7P) was originated in Indonesia (Sulawesi) in 1961 and spread throughout Asia, Africa and Latin America. In 1963, the seventh pandemic reached South Asia and circulated for more than 50 years with intermittent transmission to other continents. The recent major 7^th pandemic outbreak was detected in Haiti causing more than 9400 deaths in 2010 which was originated through patients from endemic countries.

In 1886, Escherich observed Campylobacter like organisms in stool samples of children with diarrhoea. In 1913, McFaydean and Stockman first confirmed the bacteria as Campylobacter in foetal tissues of aborted sheep. Confirmatory tests were also carried out by Smith in 1918 when similar bacteria were isolated from aborted bovine foetuses. The bacteria were then known as Vibrio foetus. In 1963, due to certain differentiating characteristics, the organisms were separated from Vibrionaceae family and the new genus Campylobacter (means ‘curved rod’) under Campylobacteraceae family was proposed.

Guillame de Baillou (1673), a physician, described an outbreak of recurrent severe cough that could induce vomition and suffocation in human in Paris. The infection was described as ‘Quintan^tussis which was later confirmed as ‘whooping cough’. The causative agent Bordetella pertussis was discovered by Jules Bordet and Octave Gengou in 1906 in Paris. The Gram-negative bacilli were isolated from sputum of Jules Bordet’s son. Bordetella bronchiseptica was first isolated by Ferry (1911) and M’Gowan (1911) who considered the bacteria as the cause of distemper in dogs. Later B. bronchiseptica was known as primary cause of ‘kennel cough’ infection along with the Canine Adenovirus and Canine Parainfluenza virus. Moreno- Lopez named the bacteria B. bronchiseptica.

The genus Moraxella was named after Morax who first isolated the bacteria from human conjunctivitis in 1896.

Properties

1. Bacteroides, Dichelobacter and Fusobacterium are major gram negative anaerobes isolated from human and animals. Other gram negative anaerobes are listed below (Table-1).

2. The bacteria are tolerant to oxygen in comparison to strict anaerobes. The bacteria do not die after oxygen exposure.

3. The bacteria naturally inhabit the intestine and mucosal surfaces of human and animals. Majority of them are opportunistic pathogens. Often they cause mixed bacterial infection along with aerobes. The aerobes remove oxygen and create an anaerobic condition favourable for their growth. The aerobes may also supply other growth requirements. For e.g. Porphyromonas asaccharolytica requires vitamin K for its growth, supplied by another aerobic bacterium, not the host.

Antony Van Leeuwenhoek (1681) first observed the spirochetes under the microscope and described them. In 1833, Ehrenberg used the name Spirochaeta for free living spiral shaped organisms. Obermeir (1873) first described a spirochete of pathogenic significance isolated from human patients with relapsing fever. Inada (1916) first isolated Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae from human patients of Weil’s disease. In 1980, Nogochi proposed the name as Leptospira.

In India, Taylor and Goyale (1931) first reported Leptospira from human patients suffering with jaundice in Andaman Islands. Ayyar (1932) first reported Leptospira from dogs in Chennai city.

The word ‘Mycoplasma’ is originated from the Greek word mykes (fungus) and plasma (formed). It was first used by Albert Bernhard Frank (1889), a German biologist. He thought it was a fungus. An older name for Mycoplasma was pleuropneumonia-like organisms (PPLO), referring to organisms similar to the causative agent of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP).It was later found that the fungus-like growth pattern of Mycoplasma mycoides is unique to the species. It was first isolated in 1898 by Edmond Nocard and E. Roux from bovine lungs. Mycoplasma pneumoniae was considered as a virus previously. Eaton and his co-workers cultured the causative agent of human primary atypical pneumonia (PAP) or ‘walking pneumonia’. It was known as ‘Eaton’s agent’. In the early 1960s, Leonard Hayflick, in Philadelphia, was first to isolate and cultivate the causative agent of primary atypical pneumonia and identified the agent as a Mycoplasma pneumoniae.

Properties of genus

1 Morphology: Mycoplasma have no cell wall and therefore are resistant to the antibiotics used to inhibit the cell wall synthesis like penicillin, cephalosporin and vancomycin. The bacteria are the smallest prokaryote (0.3-0.8µm). They are pleomorphic due to absence of the rigid cell wall. The different shapes include ring, globules, filaments and elementary bodies. Due to their plasticity in shape and size, they can be passed through the membrane filter with pore size of 0.45µm. The cell membrane is constituted of trilaminar structure enriched with phosphoprotein, lipoprotein, glycolipid, phospholipid and sterol. So Mycoplasma require sterol for their growth.

History of rickettsial infections went back to 16^th century and it has long been associated with famine and war. Epidemic typhus had major impact to decide over the outcome of several wars. The epidemic alone killed or caused great sufferings to over 1,00,000 people during World Wars. However, the causative agent was not determined until the early part of the 20^th century. Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) was the first detected rickettsial infection in 1896 in Idaho Valley, USA. It was originally known as ‘black measles’ due to its clinical appearance in the form of characteristic spotted rash throughout the body. Howard Taylor Ricketts, an American pathologist for the first time described the causative agent of Rocky Mountain spotted fever and was able to isolate it in the laboratory animals during 1902-1909. He was a dedicated scientist and on several occasions injected himself with the pathogen for experiment. The causative pathogen of Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Rickettsia rickettsii was named after him. Later, the family Rickettsiaceae as well as the order Rickettsiales was named after him. Ernest William Goodpasture, an American pathologist and physician, invented the methods of isolation and culturing the rickettsial pathogens in chicken embryos and fertilized chicken eggs.

The word ‘chlamydia’ comes from the Greek word ‘chlamys’ means ‘cloak draped around the shoulder’. It describes how the intracytoplasmic inclusions produced by the bacterium appear under the microscope(‘draped’ around the host cell nucleus). Chlamydia was first discovered by a Czech zoologist and parasitologist, Stanislaus von Prowazek in 1907 in Berlin. Originally because of its structure it was thought to be a virus. In 1963 it was recognized as a bacterium rather than a virus.

Properties of genus

1. Morphology: Chlamydia are Gram-negative, non-motile, pleomorphic and obligate intracellular bacteria. The Gram-negative cell wall consists of cytoplasmic and outer membrane. However, they lack peptidoglycan layer. Moreover, they also encode major outer membrane protein (MOMP), the key antigenic determinant used for serological differentiation of chlamydiae.

They are poorly stained by Gram’s stain. Chlamydiae are readily stained by Castaneda (blue in appearance), Giemnez and Macchiavello (red in appearance) methods. However, Giemsa staining is preferable to stain the inclusions (chlamydial micro colony) in the cell culture. Inclusion bodies of the Chlamydiae are basophilic in nature. The staining of the inclusion bodies may differ depending on the species. In C. trachomatis, the inclusion bodies contain glycogen matrix and can be easily stained with iodine solution.

During the last decade organic agriculture has emerged as a dynamic alternate farming system. This has been necessitated as a consequence of resource degradation because of to achieving high yields in various crops to meet the increasing demand of food by the burgeoning population. These have resulted in change in soil structure, imbalance in soil micro-organisms and organic matter, resistance among various weeds to weedicides, increased salinity, sodicity and have affected the water holding capacity of the soil and brought in health and environmental problems. Organic farming is a specified form of diversified agriculture that not only aims to produce nutritious food of high quality but also lead to the generation of more income and employment opportunities for rural population. In true sense, organic farming is a production system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic fertilizers, growth regulators, livestock feed additives and pesticides. Moreover, it relies on agronomic management practices like crop rotation, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, off-farming organic wastes and aspect of biological pest control to maintain soil productivity.

The inability of Indian agriculture to meet the demand for food in the country during the two and half decades immediately after independence had been a matter of concern at those times. The system of our agriculture based on the traditional knowledge and practices handed down from generation to generation could not produce enough to feed the increasing population. The ignominy of our dependence for food on the western developed nations and the politics of food aid practiced by them added to our determination to be self-sufficient in food production by modernizing agriculture. The green revolution fulfilled our aspirations by changing India from a food importing to a food exporting nation. However, the achievement was at the expense of ecology and environment and to the detriment of the well-being of the people.

Plant breeding is described as an art and science of changing the genetic architecture of plants with a goal towards betterment of mankind. Apart from this generalized concept, plant breeding is accomplished through inter-disciplinary mode assorted from simple selection in a variable plant-population having some desirable traits to the application of biotechnology and more. Worldwide, cultivars of different crops are routinely manufactured by Multinational and National level Industries, Government Institutions, Universities, Crop specific Organizations, professional plant breeders and even by the individuals such as gardeners and farmers.

Plant breeding is basically operated by the principles of Genetics where selections are practiced from a variable population and the selected variation needs to be inherited. Three categorized broad goals of plant breeding are 1) high yield 2) uplift in quality and 3) resistance against biotic and abiotic stress.

Spice crops are known to add nutritive value and increase the palatability as well as quality of food. Therapeutic uses of spices are also well recognised. The spice industry in India and trade has shown stunning progress over the last 5 years with 120% increase in revenue which is very close to touch $ 3 billion. East Asia is the major market for spices, followed by America and the European Union and the world spice trade has almost touched $ 17 billion by 2020. So, increased production is of paramount importance across the world and the potential is increasing. On the other hand, quality improvement is one of the primary objectives of spice crop breeding apart from achieving high yield. Cultivar and species diversity are the principal components of diversity of spices (Sasikumar et al. 1999; Krishnamoorthy et al., 1997; Prasath and Venugopal, 2004). A good amount of variability is found in many important Indian spices like black pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, curry leaf, ginger, garcinia, tamarind and turmeric. A number of cultivars have been released followed by intra-germplasm evaluation and selection in spices. Contribution of recombination breeding is less in spice crops with regard to other field crops and a number of valuable varieties have been bred by clonal and seedling selection (Peter, 2008). Deployment of high yielding, water use efficient, climate resilient genotypes and technologies are also necessary.

A. General Morphology

2.1 The Root

It is the organ of a plant that typically lies below the surface of the soil.The root is best defined as the non-leaf, non-nodes bearing parts of the plant’s body. However, important internal structural differences between stems and roots exist. Root spices are, rather surprisingly, rare. Some popular examples of spices having roots are: Apium graveolens (Celery), Armoracia rusticana (Horse radish), Coriandrum sativum (Coriander), Ferula asafoetida (Asafetida), Glycyrrhiza glabra (Licorice), Levisticum officinale (Lovage), (Petroselinum crispum (Parsley), etc. All of the mentioned plants have aromatic roots.Roots of gingiberaceae are adventitious and storage roots arise from among the nodes of these scales.

Since historical times, Indian spices have been contributed not only to the country’s wealth and prosperity but also to the subcontinent itself as a whole. Spices precisely witnessed many wars, bloodshed, armoury alongwith the glowing accounts and adventurous voyage by Pliny, Ptolemy, Marco Polo, Vasco da Gamma and other travelers. The Southern parts of India, especially the Malabar Coast, with its abundance of the World’s best pepper, cinnamon and ginger was enormously creating impact of a plethora of spices which attracted the foreign trade and continue even today by creating a unique brand value globally. In the past, invaders travelled to India by overcoming many odds and barriers with the prime focus on capturing spice trade and dominating the trade scenario of those days throughout the world. As a result, gradually Indian spices travelled far and wide to traditional destinations by providing flavor, aroma, pungency, taste and colour to a variety of foods and beverages.

It was the end of 18^th century, from when scientific research began on the idea of origin of cultivated plants. The pioneers of this field were Darwin, Alphonse de Candolle, N.I Vavilov and many more. Charles Darwin wrote his famous book ‘On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection’, or the ‘Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life’ published on 24^th November 1859. According to him, cultivated plants may have originated from its wild form after a series of intense modifications. Afterwards, a Swiss botanist Alphonse de Candolle studied 247 cultivated plant species and documented his work in the book “Origin of cultivated plants” in 1886. Later, Vavilov first identified the Centres of origin. He could determine the origin of plants by analyzing the pattern of variation and proposed that, crop plants have been evolved from their wild species in the geographic region of the greatest genetic diversity of that particular plant. That area is known as the primary centres of origin of the particular plant. But, some crop species were found to show substantial genetic diversity even though they did not originate there. Such areas are known as secondary centres of origin for that particular species.

Cultivated plants in general including the spice crops observed today have been evolved through selections from their weedy and wild types. Apart from this, there had been another force which could bring the wild forms into cultivated forms named human intervention which is actually the process of domestication. Natural mutations and genetic recombination after selfing and crossing also played a significant role in the entire process. Whereas, natural forces take a long time to come into act, the techniques of plant breeding was devised and fine tuned throughout passing of times, essentially to accelerate the speed of evolution using these natural phenomenons. It was, therefore, mandatory for us to know the modes of reproduction and pollination to create variability in natural population and make all thise happen to what we see today in organised cultivated forms. Moreover, knowledge on reproduction of different plant species helps the breeder to choose the right breeding procedure to be used for crop improvement. Modes of reproduction help to evaluate the genetic constitution of crop plants by determining the extent of homozygosity or heterozygosity which, in turn, are unanimously applicable to any plant. To comprehend modes of reproduction in spice crops effectively, understanding about the floral biology is absolutely necessary. Plant reproduction, a process by which one species gives birth to its offsprings, may be of two types

Pollination

Pollination is the act of transfer of pollen from the male reproductive organ of a plant to the female reproductive organ of same or another plant.

Pollination is of two types

5.1 Self Pollination

It is the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of the same flower from where the anthers have been generated. Thus, self pollination happens to be denominated as autogamy where auto means “same” and gamy means “union”. Obviously, self pollination is found in bisexual flowers. But self pollination also occurs when pollen is transferred from one bisexual flower to the stigma of another bisexual flower of the same plant. This kind of autogamy is known as geitonogamy. So, self pollination has to be defined keeping the parent plant on the main focus not the flower. If genetical consequences are considered, self pollination promotes the occurance of purelines or homozygotes. Self pollinating species developed themselves evolutionary fit due to homozygous balance and do not exhibit significant inbreeding depression.

6.1 Introduction

Plant breeding is the indispensible component of elevating production and productivity of spices by evolving high yielding and/or with good quality type. Thereby, the practice of identification and selection of desirable traits and introgression of those characters in a single plant is being done since the beginning of organized agricultural activities by humankind. The act of plant breeding was reshaped and got a momentum with a scientific basis after the discovery and rather rediscovery of Mendel’s laws. Worldwide, humankind could enjoy the direct benefits of methodical plant breeding during green revolution. Manipulation of genetic architecture for creating variation in the population and successive selection is the basic of all kinds of crop breeding. But the process of creation of variability and selection differs from crop to crop depending on their mode of reproduction. It is comparatively easier to get a new homogeneous population in self pollinating plants. Therefore, segregating generations are handled differently in these two categories of self and cross pollinated crops.

7.1 Plant Tissue Culture

Spices have great socio-economic impact in moden food habit of human but loss of resources day by day due to various reasons (industrialization, high population pressure) make the access of these valuable spices limited to people. Low production is general phenomena of common spices due to lack of high yielding varieties. Hence there is a need to improve the propagation method to meet the gap between demand and supply. Conventional vegatative propagation method is common approach for propagation but low multiplication rate, seasonal dependency and susceptible to abiotic stresses and diseases are major problems to achieve the optimum productivity. To overcome these drawbacks scientists have chosen the plant tissue culture technique (a modern approach of biotechnology which deals with the propagation the valuable/endangered plants under laboratory condition). Details about this technique and its role on spices are given below.

Plant Tissue Culture: Basic Components and Objectives

The technique of growing of a whole plant cell, tissue or organ under an aseptic condition in suitable synthetic medium is termed as plant tissue culture (Thorpe, 2007). De-differentiation and re-differentiation are two essential fundamental processes which help in the physio-morphological development of the plant.

8.1 Black Pepper Breeding

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L., family:Piperaceae), known as the ‘King of Spices’ and “Black gold”, is one of the important spices since time immemorial and perhaps the oldest spice regarded globally. It is a perennial climber grown for its fruits that are used as spice with plethora of medicinal properties. Black pepper is also very important in traditional medicine (Ravindran, 2000). However, it is mainly valued for its characteristic pungency and flavour, as an ingredient in food preparations and also as a condiment.

Genetic Resources

World’s largest collection of black pepper germplasm is maintained by the Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR) at Kozhikode, Kerala, containing local cultivars, wild forms collected from the area of origin and related species. At present there are about 3466 accessions, consisting of 1266 wild relatives, 2062 cultivars, in addition to 9 exotic collections maintained in India. These collections were characterized and evaluated to estimate the genetic diversity for various yield and quality characters. Cultivar diversity is one of the principal components of diversity in black pepper. The cultivars are evolved directly from the wild P. nigrum.

1.1 Introduction

Irrespective of caste, creed, culture, sex, age or religion people like garden. A well-maintained garden serves as lungs of the city or locality as it is a prime source of plenty of oxygen and people enjoy the surrounding and feel happy by fresh air. In holy books of Hindu religion, the importance of plants as well as gardens are explained very beautifully. In the holy Bible it is mentioned that Adam and eve lived in garden. In Quran it is explained as the paradise on earth. So, scriptures of all religions explain about gardens. It shows gardens and plants are closely related to human from the origin of human belief.

2.1 Introduction

Generally, gardens are divided into different sections as per the rules and regulation followed in the placement of different elements and features in it. On the basis of this garden types are divided into 4 categories such as

3.1 Introduction

Many gardens follow strict rules. So those are known as formal gardens. Generally formal gardens include:

Italian gardens

French gardens

Persian gardens

Mughal gardens

4.1 Introduction

Many styles of gardens do not follow strict rules and so those are known as informal gardens. Some gardens evolved as informal garden in due course of time as per the choice of people but some gardens are informal in nature from origin. Informal gardens are:

English garden

Japanese garden

Hindu garden

Buddhist garden

5.1 Elements of Landscape Gardens

5.1.1 Introduction

Elements of a garden are the basic units of any visual design which form its structure and convey visual messages. Elements are based on the art principles of landscaping. Process of landscape design includes concepts and elements of landscape designing. Generally, elements of a garden are divided into 2 types

6.1 Introduction

Garden design encompasses the aesthetic beauty, artistry, knowledge of plant growth and development with basic maintenance of plants and other elements as required. Principles are the basic rules of designing a landscape. The basic principles of garden design are very simple; however, each is often referred to by more than one name. Principles of landscape garden keeps the garden lively and beautiful. The principles of gardening should be kept in mind always while designing a garden.

6.2 Axis

It is an imaginary line in landscape designs around which the garden is created striking a balance. In a formal garden the central line is the axis.

7.1 Introduction

Garden designing is an important and crucial step as whole aesthetic view of the garden depends upon it. A beautifully designed garden can attract plenty of viewers as well as fauna while a poorly designed garden can destroy the view of the garden as a whole. So, while designing a garden all the basic principles and elements of gardening should be kept in mind.

7.2 Steps in Preparation of Garden Design

Site identification

Generally, the site for garden development is provided by the client itself. So, in this case we should go for site analysis step directly. Site identification is always a choice of client/human. If landscape architect has liberty to identify a land for garden establishment, he should identify the site as per choice of the client, usage and special considerations of the client.

8.1 Introduction

One important aspect of bio-aesthetic planning is to landscape public places on a priority basis compared to private places. For this specific reason, the railway station and the railway lines should attract attention at the very outset for landscape gardening.

8.2 Definition

Bio-aesthetic planning means the proper utilization of the available flora and fauna in the beautification of the surroundings. The concept of bio-aesthetic planning is given by concept of Prof. Lancelot Hogben.

In India, the theme of bio-aesthetic planning was propagated by Dr. M. S. Randhawa. Le Corbusier and his associates, Pierre Jeanneret, E. Maxwell Fry and Jane B. Drew had planned Chandigarh city as per the principles of bioaesthetic planning.

9.1 Introduction

Xeriscaping is the fine art of creating water-efficient landscapes by using plants that are appropriate to the natural environment. Xeriscaping (zer-i-skaping) is a word originally coined by a special task force of the Denver Water Department, Associated Landscape Contractors of Colorado and Colorado State University to describe landscaping with water conservation as a major objective. The derivation of the word is from the Greek “xeros,” meaning dry, and scape meaning the pattern of the landscape – thus, xeriscaping. The term xeriscaping represents a practice or philosophy with the goal to establish and maintain an attractive and healthy landscape while reducing water usage. One of the prime practices in xeriscaping is the use of drought tolerant plants, but xeriscaping is more than that. It also includes changes in the landscape design, soil improvement, efficient irrigation, mulching, and other maintenance practices which contribute towards a water-wise landscape. But xeriscapes are not dry and dull. Well-designed xeriscapes are enchanting and beautiful. The best xeriscapes use a fraction of the water needed by traditional lawn-dominated landscapes. Some xeric plants require little or no supplemental watering once they are established. And xeriscapes require far less ongoing maintenance.

1.1. Plant Quarantine

The literary meaning of the word quarantine is” a state, period or place of isolation in which the people or animals or plants or acquacultures that have arrived from elsewhere or been exposed to infectious or contagious disease are placed.

Plant quarantine is a technique of keeping the imported or introduced plants or planting material in isolation for detecting the exotic pests, diseases and disease pathogens and weeds which may be harmful to the importing country for its crop plants, agriculture or the ecosystem. These plants/planting material are kept in isolation for a specified period which differ from plant species to plant species depending on the type of pathogen/pests for which the material has to be quarantine. This is based on the Rules and regulations promulgated by governments to regulate the introduction of plants, planting materials, plant products, soil, living organisms, etc. with a view to prevent inadvertent introduction of exotic pests, weeds and pathogens harmful to the agriculture or the environment of a country/region, and if introduced, to prevent their establishment and further spread. Plant quarantine is thus designed as a safeguard against harmful pest /pathogens exotic to a country or a region.

Plant quarantine is a most important activity in the introduction of plants and planting material as various insects, including mites and nematodes and diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses, viroids, phytoplasmas,rickettsialike organisms are known to attack various crops of economic importance to not only reduce the quantity but also spoil the quality of the produce to a considerable extent and if these pests and pathogens are introduced with the planting material in its non ecosystem areas may prove fatal to the agriculture or ecosystem

2.1. Guidelines for Pest Risk Analysis

This standard describes the process of pest risk analysis for plant pests for the purpose of preparing phytosanitary regulations by National Plant Protection Organizations. Pest risk analysis (PRA) consists of three stages: initiating the process for analyzing risk, assessing pest risk, and managing pest risk.

Initiating the process involves identification of pests or pathways for which the PRA is needed. Pest risk assessment determines whether each pest identified as such, or associated with a pathway, is a quarantine pest, characterized in terms of likelihood of entry, establishment, spread and economic importance. Pest risk management involves developing, evaluating, comparing and selecting options for reducing the risk.

PRA is only meaningful in relation to a defined “PRA area” considered to be at risk. This is usually a country, but can also be an area within a country, or an area covering all or parts of several countries [e.g. the area covered by a Regional Plant Protection Organization (RPPO)].

3.1. What is the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC)

The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) is a 1951 multilateral treaty deposited with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) that aims to secure coordinated, effective action to prevent and to control the introduction and spread of pests of plants and plant products. The Convention extends beyond the protection of cultivated plants to the protection of natural flora and plant products. It also takes into consideration both direct and indirect damage by pests including weeds.

The IPPC as an intergovernmental treaty signed by over 180 countries, aiming to protecting the world’s plant resources from the spread and introduction of pests, and promoting safe trade. The Convention introduced International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPMs) as its main tool to achieve its goals, making it the sole global standard setting organization for plant health.

The IPPC is one of the “Three Sisters” recognized by the World Trade Organization’s (WTO) Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) Agreement, along with the Codex Alimentarius Commission for food safety standards and the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) for animal health standards.

In Article IX of IPPC, it is stated that RPPOs shall

• Function as coordinating bodies in the areas covered by the IPPC (including information sharing)
• Cooperate with the IPPC Secretariat in achieving the objectives of the IPPC (including the development of ISPMs)
• Cooperate with other RPPOs and participate in the regular Technical Consultations for RPPOs that are convened by the IPPC Secretariat

At present, there are 10 RPPOs covering the different regions of the world. Each RPPO has its own independent statutes and conducts its own regional cooperation programme. RPPOs produce regional standards for their members. They cooperate with each other and with the IPPC Secretariat. In particular, they meet in Technical Consultations to promote the development and use of relevant ISPMs and to encourage inter-regional cooperation on phytosanitary measures for controlling quarantine pests and preventing their introduction and spread.

5.1. Australia’s Experience and Approach to Pest Risk Analysis

Australia applies the principles of pest risk analysis for the identification and management of sanitary and phytosanitary risks associated with new trade proposals and, where the need is identified, to the review of sanitary and phytosanitary risks of existing trade. One such trade activity is the intentional importation of exotic plant species not yet established in Australia.

Of approximately 250 000 plant species in the world, 30 000 have been intentionally introduced to Australia since European colonization, along with an unknown number of unintentional introductions, of which about 2 700 have naturalized (Cunningham et al., 2003). Some become problematic plants of which about 300 have become serious weeds of agriculture and natural ecosystems. Clearly, the majority of plant species have yet to be introduced to Australia and some of these would become weeds if allowed into the country.

The weed risk assessment (WRA) system is a decision support tool that is employed by Australia in applying the principles of pest risk analysis to the review of sanitary and phytosanitary risks associated with the intentional importation of exotic plant species not yet established in the country. The WRA system is used specifically to assess the weed potential of such species. It generates a score for a species based on its history as a weed in other parts of the world, climatic suitability to Australia and biological attributes. The weed risk assessment (WRA) system is one means by which the assessment component of pest risk analysis is addressed. The WRA system is a question-based scoring method that can be operated using a computer or manually using paper-based forms. A Microsoft® Excel spreadsheet version of the system, including documentation, has been made available through the International Phytosanitary Portal

6.1. Speed Detection of Pests in China for Phytosanitary Programme

Phytosanitary procedures such as pest detection and identification rely on technology. With the rapid development of science, it is necessary for national plant protection organizations to keep informed and to make diagnoses more sensitive and accurate. Previous general pest detection methods frequently have limitations for the diagnosis of quarantine pests. In the past ten years, China has conducted considerable research into how to improve its diagnostic measures and methods.

6.1.1. General Pest Detection Measures and Methods

Traditional determination of morphology by microscope is used mostly to detect fungi and adult insects. The morphological method may be used, for example, in the separate identification of wheat dwarf bunt (Tilletia controversa), wheat karnal bunt (T. indica) and wheat common bunt (T. tritici). On the other hand, it is hard to detect seed-borne pests using the morphological method.

Isolation culture is also used to detect fungi and bacteria in China. It is an effective method for detecting seed-borne disease or systemic infection. However, it takes a long time (more than 1-2 weeks). Inoculating the indicated plant (a healthy plant that is a host for the suspected pest organism) is used mainly to identify viruses. This was the principal and time-consuming detection method used before immunological and molecular biological methods were developed. Because viruses are very important kinds of quarantine pests of young plants, effective and rapid methods for detection were urgently needed.

7.1. BioNET International

7.1.1. What is BioNet International

BioNET-International, is the Global Network for Taxonomy, and is dedicated to creating sustainable mechanisms to assist developing countries to overcome the Taxonomic Impediment by becoming self-reliant in taxonomy i.e. self-reliant in the skills, infrastructure (collections etc.) and technologies needed to discover, identify, name and classify and to understand the relationships of all organisms on this planet.

It is concerned with helping developing countries to recognise and know the organisms that constitute and threaten their biodiversity, not for taxonomy’s own sake, but rather to support national programmes for sustainable agricultural development, and conservation and sustainable use of the environment.

BioNET-International is particularly focused on helping countries implement the various environmental conventions such as the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC; www.ippc.int) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD; www.biodiv.org), especially its taxonomic capacity building compnent, the Global Taxonomy Initiative (GTI). The subregional networks of BioNET-International have been identified as appropriate structures through which much of the GTI (www.biodiv.org/programmes/cross-cutting/taxonomy/default.asp) can be effectively implemented.

8.1. Phytosanitary Capacity Evaluation (PCE): The Tool, and Its Relation to Invasive Alien Species

Phytosanitary Capacity Evaluation (PCE) is a diagnostic tool enabling a country to assess the weaknesses and strengths of its phytosanitary system in relation to its ability to fully implement the International Plant Protection Convention and other international phytosanitary obligations. PCE has also been applied as a cross-disciplinary tool among the sanitary, phytosanitary and food safety areas in the Andean subregion. Since “quarantine pests”, as defined by the convention, constitute a subset of invasive alien species, PCE results are already useful in relation to invasive alien species. PCE methodology has the potential to be further developed to cover a country’s needs in implementing Article 8(h) of the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Article XX of the International Plant Protection Convention establishes the agreement by contracting parties to promote the provision of technical assistance to facilitate implementation of the IPPC. Phytosanitary Capacity Evaluation (PCE) is the first tool approved by the Interim Commission of Phytosanitary Measures to address that commitment, assisting contracting parties to perform a needs assessment and identification of their constraints for achieving full implementation of the IPPC at the national level.

Classical biological control is one of the important tools for the management of invasive species. This involves the introduction and release of natural enemies, usually from the invaders’ area of origin. During the past decade, increasing concerns have been raised about the potential negative impact of introduced biological control agents on non-target organisms. This has highlighted the need to examine and guide the process of importation and release of natural enemies. The third international standard for phytosanitary measures, ISPM 3: Code of conduct for the import and release of exotic biological control agents, is specifically concerned with this process. ISPM 3 was endorsed by members of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in 1995.

There is a growing demand and need for biological control across the globe. This has been fuelled not only by the increasing spate of invasive species but also by the need to develop integrated pest management approaches as well as the increased interest in organic production. Classical biological control of arthropod pests and weeds has been carried out successfully for more than a century (Greathead and Greathead, 1992; Julien and Griffiths, 1998). However, over the years, practitioners have become increasingly aware that introduced biological control agents may have undesirable side-effects (Thomas and Willis, 1998; Howarth, 2000; Follet and Duan, 2000; Lynch and Thomas, 2000; Wajnberg, Scott and Quimby, 2000; Henneman and Memmott, 2001). Initially, this concern was limited to the possible impact of these introduced agents on economically important plants and insects (notably, honey bees, silk moths and weed biological control agents). More recently, increased environmental awareness has drawn attention to the potential danger to all indigenous fauna and flora, particularly rare and endangered species.

To address these concerns, a code of conduct for the import and release of exotic biological control agents was developed with a view to fostering safe importation and release of biological control agents (Greathead, 1997). It was developed over a period of six years and was finally endorsed by FAO member countries at the end of 1995. The code of conduct, the third in a series of international standards for phytosanitary measures developed by the International Plant Protection Convention, was formally published in 1996 as ISPM 3: Code of conduct for the import and release of exotic biological control agents and is available, with other ISPMs

The IPPC Secretariat provides support for the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) and coordinates the annual work programme put in place by the Interim Commission on Phytosanitary Measures. The three key activities of the Secretariat are: standard setting, technical assistance and information exchange. To facilitate the information exchange obligations laid out in the IPPC, the Secretariat adapted an existing Web-based environment to allow users to be able to both deposit and retrieve data from various sources. This Web site was named the “International Phytosanitary Portal” (IPP). As the IPP continues to evolve every effort are being made to ensure that specific issues necessary for the management of invasive alien species are addressed.

11.1. History of Plant Quarantine in India

The first recorded plant quarantine measure in India dates back to 1906, when perceiving the danger of introducing the Mexican boll weevil, the Government of India directed that all cotton imported from the New World should only be admitted to India after fumigation with carbon disulphide at the port of entry.

In India two categories of regulatory measures are in operation for controlling pests, diseases and weeds. In the first category regulatory measures are aimed to prevent the introduction of exotic pests and diseases into the country or their spread from one State or Union Territory to another (Plant Quarantine). The second pertains to suppression or prevention of spread of pests and diseases in localized areas within a State or Union Territory.

The former derives its authority from the Destructive Insects and Pests (DIP) Act 1914 of the Central Government and the latter from Agricultural Pests and Diseases Acts of the various States. The legislative measures against crop pests and diseases were initiated under the DIP Act of 1914 which was passed by the then Governor General of India in Council on 3 February 1914.

Prior to the establishment of the Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage in 1946, under the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, the various rules and regulations of the DIP Act were enforced by the customs department. The quarantine regulations are operative through The Destructive Insects and Pests Act, 1914 (which has been revised 8 times from 1930 to 1956 and amended in 1967 and 1992).

12.1. Introduction

The protocols provides guidance on the structure and content of the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) diagnostic protocols for regulated pests. The protocols describe procedures and methods for the official diagnosis of regulated pests that are relevant for international trade. They provide at least the minimum requirements for reliable diagnosis of regulated pests.

This standard sets the framework for the content of diagnostic protocols, their purpose and use, their publication and their development. Diagnostic protocols for specific regulated pests are included as annexes to this standard. Information relevant for diagnosis is provided in the diagnostic protocol on the specified regulated pest, its taxonomic position, and the methods to detect and identify it. Diagnostic protocols contain the minimum requirements for reliable diagnosis of the specified regulated pests and provide flexibility to ensure that methods are appropriate for use in the full range of circumstances.

The methods included in diagnostic protocols are selected on the basis of their sensitivity, specificity and reproducibility, and information related to these factors is provided for each of these methods. Detailed information and guidance for the detection of pests is provided on, for example, signs and/or symptoms associated with the pest, illustrations (where appropriate), developmental stages of the pest, and methods for detecting the pest in a commodity, as well as methods for extracting, recovering and collecting the pests from plants.

13.1. Quarantine Inspection and Certification

13.1.1. Scope/Purpose

Provides guidance and describes the standard operating procedures for certification of facilities for growing imported plants/plant material including transgenic plant material and other regulated articles such as biological control agents/beneficial organisms and living modified organisms under post-entry quarantine and inspecting the same to ensure free from quarantine pests and other regulated non-quarantine pests.

The purpose is to facilitate adoption of standard operating procedures by all the inspection authorities notified by the Ministry of Agriculture (Department of Agriculture & Cooperation)/PQOs (with PEQ responsibilities) for undertaking certification of post-entry quarantine inspection facilities as well as conducting postentry quarantine inspection of growing plants and other regulated articles under the supervision of concerned inspection authority/ PQOs (with PEQ responsibilities) in accordance with phytosanitary requirements specified under the Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order, 2003 and amendments issued there under to prevent the introduction and spread of destructive pests that affects plants and other regulated articles such as biological control agents and beneficial organisms.