eChapters

Who discovered bacteria?

a) Leeuwen hock b) Ledge berg

c) Walkman and Zinder d) None

The fungi are usually:

a) Parasites or saprophytes b) Lithophytes

c) Epiphytes d) Insectivorous

According to Pasteur statements which one of the following is true

a) Living organisms discriminate between stereo isomers

b) Fermentation

c) Living organisms doesnít discriminate

d) Both a and b

The method to preserve foods in sealed glass bottles by heat in boiling water was developed by one among the following scientist?

a) Edward Jenner (1798) b) Francois Nicolas Appert (1804)

c) Lazzaro spallanzani (1765) d) None of the above

Nisin is produced by strains of

a) Streptococcus lactis b) Pseudomonas

c) E. coli d) Clostridium

The term nanotechnology, buzzword of present day science owes its origin from the Greek word ‘nano’ literally meaning dwarf. When it is expressed in terms of dimension one nanometer equals to one billionth of a meter (1nm = 10-9 m). A nanometer is a thousandth of a thousandth of a thousandth of a meter, about 60,000 times smaller than a human hair in diameter or the size of a virus, a typical sheet of paper is about 100,000 nm thick, a red blood cell is about 2,000 to 5,000 nm in size, and the diameter of DNA is in the range of 2.5 nm. Therefore, nanotechnology deals with matter that ranges from one-half the diameter of DNA up to 1/20 the size of a red blood cell. 

It all started after the famous lecture, “There is plenty of room at the bottom” given by Richard Feynman on December 29, 1959. Nanomaterials are intermediate between macroscopic solid and of atomic and molecular systems. Nanomaterials have certain properties which make them different from that of the bulk materials, including large fraction of surface atoms, high surface energy, spatial confinement, and reduced imperfections. Nanotechnology deals with various structures of matter having dimensions of the order of a billionth of a meter (Ray Unmesha. 2018). From the advent of nanotechnology, people realized that certain materials can exhibit different properties based on its size and shape.
 

Biological diagnostic methods rely on the transmission and amplification of the pathogen in indicator hosts that develop symptoms. These methods test the biological properties of pathogens and early successes in the control of intracellular pathogens were largely due to the diagnosis of the causal agents by biological tests. The sensitivity of biological/serological tests is usually determined by the minimum number of pathogen propagules required to initiate infection. Inoculation with fewer particles could lead to false negative results. Biological techniques for disease diagnosis and pathogen detection are usually highly accurate but too slow and not amenable to large-scale application. 

Agri-nanotechnology is a new branch of biology that has originated due to the compatibility of nanosized inorganic and organic particles with biological functions. Based on enhanced effectiveness, the new age drugs are nanoparticles of polymers, metals, or ceramics, which can facilitate several biological applications. Plant diseases are caused by pathogens including fungi, bacteria, mycoplasma, viruses and viroids, nematodes, parasitic plants, and protozoa. 

With the development of improved systems for monitoring environmental conditions and delivering pesticides appropriately, nanotechnology can further improve our understanding of the biology of different crops and thus potentially enhance yields. It can offer routes to plant disease diagnostics, insect-pest management and efficient pesticides utilization. Nanostructure catalysts will help in increasing the efficiency of pesticides allowing lower doses to be used. 

Biocompatible, biodegradable, intelligent and responsive materials are currently an emerging area of interest in the field of efficient, safe, and green pesticide formulation. Using nanotechnology to design and prepare targeted pesticides with environmentally responsive controlled release via compound and chemical modifications has also shown great potential in creating novel formulations. Special attention was paid to intelligent pesticides with precise controlled release modes that can respond to micro-ecological environment changes such as light-sensitivity, thermo-sensitivity, humidity sensitivity, soil pH and enzyme activity (Huang et al., 2018).

Nanoscience and nanotechnologies are set to transform the global industrial landscape, but the debate on how to regulate environmental, health and safety risks is lagging behind technological innovation. Current regulatory efforts are primarily focused on the national and regional level, while the international dimensions of nanotechnology governance are still poorly understood and rarely feature on the international agenda. With the ongoing globalization of nanosciences and the rapid expansion of international trade in nanomaterials, however, demand for international coordination and harmonization of regulatory approaches is set to increase. However, uncertainty about nanotechnology risk poses a profound dilemma for regulators and policy-makers. Uncertainty both creates demand for and stands in the way of greater international cooperation and harmonization of regulatory approaches. Falkner Robert and Jaspers Nico (2012) reviewed the emerging debate on nanotechnology risk and regulatory approaches, investigates the current state of international cooperation and outlines the critical contribution that a global governance approach can make to the safe development of nanotechnologies. 

Nanotoxicity is the study of the toxicity of nanomaterials that focuses on how the size and unique properties of nanoparticles influences their impact on plant helath, human health and the environment. Plants are essential fundamental components of all ecosystems and the interaction between nanoparticles (NPs) and plants is an indispensable aspect of the risk assessment. NP phytotoxicity, an important precondition to promote the application of nanotechnology and to avoid the potential ecological risks was reviewed (Jie Yang et al., 2017). 

Nanotechnologies are being spoken of as the driving force behind the new industrial revolution. The mass production of these nano materials and their applications mean a dramatic increase of workers dealing with Engineered Nano Materials (ENM) and becoming possibly exposed to resulting hazardous effects and increased environmental burden of the environment due to the leaks of these materials from industrial processes. It is, hence, essential to consider the importance of ENM safety and their new applications and understand that it is important for these materials and products to be safe to enable successful promotion of nanotechnology for useful applications (Eman M Osman, 2019). 

1.1. Background Introduction

We live in a world with “throw-away” societies that are involved in a pattern of consuming packaged products that don’t even last past a single use or even a year and discarding the waste. This lifestyle generating waste is negatively impacting public health, environment and imposing socio-economic problems on us. The waste is continuously consuming our land, resources, and energy for storage, management, treatment, and disposal. Solid waste was an urban issue initially but has reached every corner nowadays. 

1.1 Introduction

Increased emission of greenhouse gases results in climate change which becomes one of the most prominent environmental issues to the world today. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the major greenhouse gas whereas nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) are other substantial contributors to climate change (IPCC, 2014, Tongwane et al., 2016). However, these gases are emitted in minimal quantities in comparison to carbon dioxide but impart more global warming effect by absorbing more infrared radiations (Oertel et al., 2016). The warming potential of one kg of CH4 is 23 times more than one kg of CO2 while  in the case of N2O, it was nearly 300 times more than CO2 (Ramaswamy et al., 2001, Bharti et al., 2019; Biswas et al., 2010). Around one-third of methane and two –thirds of nitrous oxide come from soil (Prather et al., 1995, Tubiello et al., 2015, Smith, 2016).

3.1 Introduction

A Massive increase in population, urbanization and industrialization have led to an increase in the quantity and composition of waste. The waste is increasing day by day and is estimated to reach up to 2.2 billion tonnes by 2025, according to the reports by World Bank. It becomes a necessity for every nation to fore look upon the waste management system for their respective countries. From the collection, segregation, transportation, disposal all have become an important criterion to deal with. Among the available disposal options; the easiest and environment friendly is “Recycling”. 

4.1. Introduction

Presently, in the world, there are 195 countries according to the United Nations, and the number would even go up to 247 if we consider the disputed territories like Isle of Man, Hong Kong, etc. (United Nations, 2016) (Kershner, 2020). But the majority of the countries are still struggling to provide basic life-supporting amenities like nutrition, shelter, and employment. Conjointly, termed as emerging and developing countries such as India, Vietnam, Venezuela, Utopia, etc. (Ahmed and Shimada, 2019). Most of the developing countries are situated mainly in the continent of Africa, Asia and South America. They have got independence for the European countries like England, France, Portugal and Spain in the mid and late 20th century. 

Definitions: Before starting the chapter, it is better to understand the basic definitions of the terms commonly used in this chapter.

Waste: Waste is any material or object which is discarded after its primary use by its holder. A holder means the person who produces and keeps the waste. 

6.1 Introduction

Urbanization is now a global phenomenon, but in developing countries the implications are more pronounced. Natural growth of population, reclassifications of habitation and migration trends are important in urban population in India. The population of India, which accounts for 27 per cent of the total population, was 285 million according to 2001 census. International experience shows that the pace of urban development accelerates when a country’s urban population crosses close to 25 percent of the total population (like in India).(Kumar and Chakrabarti, 2010). 

7.1. Developing Sector in Scientific and Technological Approach of Waste Management

From the very past, many traditional practices have been put into use for waste management like landfilling, composting, and recycling, which are practiced even today. However, the boundless upsurging waste compels the modern world to modify the traditional methods or to introduce innovative techniques with the grace of technology

8. Introduction

The idea of sustainable development stands on the concept of maintaining the best possible environment within the availability of minimal resources and for the convenience of the society. Now-a-day the term “sustainability” gained a lot of attention due to challenges and problems faced in tackling the current situation of global pollution. One of the vital areas of research needs to be addressed in concern with sustainable development is the new innovations to enhance sustainability (Silvestre and Silva, 2014). 

Introduction

With ever-increasing population growth, waste management has become a major challenge threatening environmental sustainability. The total solid waste generation was recorded to be 1.3 billion tonnes per year by the world’s cities in 2012, with an ecological footprint of 1.2 kilograms per person/day. With the intensity with which the population growth is happening coupled with urbanization, predictions are made that by the end of the year 2025, 2.2 billion tonnes of municipal waste will be generated (The World Bank, 2018). 

10.1 Introduction

The consistent process of rapid urbanization and expeditious developmental activities have severely impacted the environmental components and thereby the quality of life. With limited natural resources, individuals and societies have to learn to bring in attitudinal changes in order to accomplish environment sustainability (UNESCO). From the Book “Our Common Future” (Brundtland Report), the concept of Sustainable Development can be understood as the “development that meets the needs of the present, but does not threaten the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. 

1.1 Agricultural technologies and knowledge

Agricultural technologies and knowledge have, until recently, largely been created and disseminated by public institutions. But over the past two decades, biotechnology for agricultural production has developed rapidly, and the world economy has become more globalised and liberalised

2.1 Communication comes from word

‘Communi’ means common. To establish commonness between two individuals is communication. Communication is to share information, idea, and attitude or tuned together for a particular message.

3.1. Types of communication network

There are different situations in which different kind of communication is required for transfer of technology. An Extension expert works in an organization.

4.1 The non-verbal communication

The non-verbal communication is the use of human body as the medium of message. The non-verbal communication forms a vital part of the process of communication that an individual goes through daily.

5.1 A great deal of research

A great deal of research has been carried out on listening in communication. According to the researchers, listening comes at top of the list of the four forms of communication

The extension professionals are interested to disseminate technology to the users. The users are rural people. The users of technology are to read and understand technology designed for them. Rural readers have different interests like, crop production, animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry etc.

Presentation takes place all the time in organization. We are required to make presentation in meeting, seminar, conference etc. The presenter should know certain techniques to make his presentation effective.

Study of animal diseases at patient bed side for diagnosis, prognosis, monitoring and treatment comes under

a) Veterinary Epidemiology b) Preventive Medicine

c) Veterinary Jurisprudence d) Veterinary Clinical Medicine

Health is defined as a state

a) Where all body system function normally

b) Absence of disease

c) Activities continue within normal physiological limits

d) All of the above

1 Diagnosis of a disease includes

a) Determination of specific cause

b) Abnormality of structure and functions produced by causative agent

c) Clinical manifestation associated with the abnormality

d) All of the above

1 The changes in functioning at the cellular level and establishment of disease process is termed

a) Pathogenesis b) Virulence

c) Prognosis d) None of the above

1 What percentage of body weight is intracellular water

a) 60 b) 40

c) 20 d) 15

1 True vomiting is seen in

a) Pseudoruminants b) Monogastric animal

c) Ruminants d) All

1 Inflammation of peritonium is called

a) Peronitis b) Peritonitis

c) Laminitis d) Oophonitis

1. Inflammation of pericardium or pericardial sac is known as

a) Endocarditis b) Pericarditis

c) Myocarditis d) Epicarditis

1 Major haematopoetic organ in adults is

a) Spleen b) Liver

c) Bone marrow d) Kidney

1 Defective oxygenation of blood in pulmonary circulation

a) Anaemic anoxia b) Stagnant anoxia

c) Anoxic anoxia d) Histotoxic anoxia

1 Homeostasis in kidney is generally maintained by

a) Glomerulus b) Renal tubules

c) Both (a) and (b) d) None of the above

Lymphnodes are found in every part of the body except

a) Digestive system b) Respiratory system

c) Cardiovascular system d) Central nervous system

1 Condition characterised by bran - like scales on skin surfaces is called

a) Pustule b) Parakeratosis

c) Erythema d) Pityriasis

1 The clinical manifestations of disease of muscle, bones and joints are generally characterised by

a) Lameness b) Failure of support to stand

c) Incoordination of movement d) All of the above

1 Inflammation of meninges and spinal cord along with brain is called

a) Encephalomyelitis b) Encephalitis

c) Meningitis d) Meningoencephalitis

1 Metabolic profile test to know the nutritional status of a dairy animal, by assessing the blood used components

a) Complete profile test b) Metabolic profile test

c) Compton metabolic profile test d) Dairy animal metabolism test

1 Application of lime reduces plant minerals namely

a) Ca b) Zn

c) Mn d) All of the above

1 Delayed post natal diseases occurs within _______ days after birth

a) 10 days b) 2-7 days

c) 2 days d) 15-30 days

1 Increased concentration of delta aminolevulinic acid is an indicator of toxicity due to

a) Lead b) Nitrate

c) Arsenic d) Cadmium