eChapters

ABSTRACT

The present paper discusses about the Geoelectrical response over Charnockite rocks and Biotite Gneiss rock types of Sankaran kovil and Tenkasi Taluks of Tirunelveli District, Tamilnadu. The study area is adjoined to the Western Ghats which geologically comprises Archean crystalline hard rocks. In this attempt, about 7 Vertical Electrical Soundings (3 in Gneiss and 4 in Charnockite) have been carried out in both terrains. The VES values were interpreted with Schlumberger Sounding Dada Processing and Interpretation Program .The resistivity values varied from 68 m to 808 m with the layer thickness of 10m, 20 m and 29m in the biotite gneiss terrain. Similarly, the resistivity values varied from 48 m to 444 m with the layer thickness of 4m, 6m, 9m,18m & 29m in the charnockite terrain. But the depth to massive rock for both the rock types has been observed below 29m. In this study, a difference in resistivity with high resistivity values in gneissic terrain and lower values in charnockite terrain have been observed. The observed resistivity differences are mainly due to the presence of resisting minerals such as biotite and hornblende. Besides, other factors like weathering and water table also influence the resistivity values. Hence, it is summerised that the geoelectric methods are the best methods to understand the subsurface lithostudies.

Introduction to GIS

QGIS (Quantum GIS) is an open-source Geographic Information System (GIS) software has been used to showcase various exercises pertaining to viewing, editing, analyzing, and printing of the geospatial data. QGIS helps to allow the users to easily access and manage geographic data stored in folders on local disks or relational databases available on the user’s network. QGIS supports raster, vector, and mesh layers. QGIS also allows using data from external sources with the help of web services such as Web Map Service (WMS) and Web Feature Service. QGIS is a constantly developing software as anyone can add new features or update existing tools. Newer versions of QGIS are frequently released on the official website. It is a cross-platform software that can be installed in Windows, Linux, and MacOS.

More information, more accurate and timely decision. In present high tech world, the more information you have it is easier to make an accurate decision. The information comes in many different ways, from reports to digital photos. A new way to analyze data is a geographic information system (GIS). GIS allows to bring all types of data together based on the geographic and locational component of the data. GIS is a useful tool for seeking innovative ways to solve the problems.

9.1 What is GIS?

A geographic information system (GIS) is a system designed to capture, store manipulate, analyze, manage and present all types of geographically referenced data. GIS can be defined as a computer-based system for digital entry, storage, transformation, analysis and display of spatial data. A geographic information system integrates hardware, software and geographically referenced data for further analysis. GIS allows users to interpret the georeferenced data in many ways that reveal relationships, patterns and trends.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Geographic Information System (GIS) is the new emerging field and grows at very rapid pace. Now GIS is a billion dollar industry with applications in varied disciplines. At present, GIS is being used by professionals from various disciplines. In this decade, GIS is being used by experts who are good in GIS technology for various applications. The development trend indicates that GIS will be used by common man in near future and at the same time, advanced GIS analysis will be carried out by GIS experts.

Any technology is developed out of necessity and GIS is of no exception. When a large amount of data were available for water distribution systems, road network, sewer lines, telecom lines, electricity lines, gas pipe lines, state wise population, natural resources etc, it is important to store, maintain and retrieve the data for applications. It is not possible to manually browse through the large amount of paper records. Also even if the data is available in an unorganized way in the computerized environment, it is not useful. Hence if the data are referred to locations in earth surface and the data are stored in an organized way, it is possible to retrieve and analyse the data for applications. Hence the solution is GIS and developed today into reality. Developed countries are using GIS widely in many areas but developing countries are moving towards the development of GIS database for their resources.

Remote sensing, aerial photography, cartography, surveying and other field instruments for attribute data collection contributes to the data acquisition. Cartography, surveying, geography, geodesy contributes for mapping process. Disciplines like computer science and statistics, mathematics involved in processing and analysing data . Computer science and mathematics involved in storing the data structure.

GIS maps are intelligent. It has many advantages compared with paper map in this digital age.

Spatial data means data which are referenced to earth. Maps, satellite imageries, aerial photographs are example of spatial data. Attribute data which are attached to spatial data are called as aspatial data or non-spatial data.

If these data are brought into GIS then it is stored in a standard format, it is possible to update, share, retrieve, manipulate and analyse quickly. Much of the time and money is saved in case of reproduction and better decisions could be made

World Trade Organisation

The World Trade Organisation (WTO) was the result of years of painstaking efforts on the part of governments and other bodies to establish a globally acceptable basis for a new economic order. It was established to correct the imbalances and disparities in international trade and bring about an evenly balanced world trade order that equally benefits the developed, developing and least developed nations. While there are several agreements under the WTO, the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement) specifically represents the resolve of all member countries to use intellectual property as one of the means for achieving economic balance and diminishing the trade barriers.

The term Geographical Indications (GIs) attained significant status in trade agreement negotiations after the establishment of World Trade Organization (WTO).Under WTO, Agreement on the Trade Related aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) sets forth standards to regulate international intellectual property protection and enforcement and establishes international minimum standards for GIs. Geographical Indications identify goods that have a specific geographical origin and possess a quality, reputation or other characteristics which are due to that place of origin. Geographical Indications are now widely accepted as valuable marketing tools in the global economy and are useful to protect rights of communities. Geographical Indications are not granted to individuals but are granted to the group/association of producers as the symbol of collective ownership.

In modem days, many informations receive through electronic media with instant connecting by satellite based information on social, economical, environmental etc. the informations are coded with feasible electronic encrypt and delivered to people. Similarly remote sensing, GIS (Geographical Information System) and GPS (Global Positioning System) also serve world for better understanding the ground reality along with reducing cost of operation, transforming data through electronic webs easily. In earlier phase, ground related information was not easily obtained because all kind of work had been done manually using analog maps of earth; even map draw was done by drafting from totposheet or hand maps, no interface of analog and digital world.

Introduction

A geographical information system (GIS) is a kind of database that has software tools for handling, analyzing, and presenting spatial data and descriptions of phenomena that have a location component. This system can also involve human users and support staff, procedures and workflows, a body of knowledge about relevant concepts and methods, and institutional organizations in a wider sense. GIS technology is a key part of spatial data infrastructure, which the White House describes as “the policies, technologies, standards, human resources, and related activities that are necessary to acquire, process, distribute, use, maintain, and preserve spatial data.”

Geography plays a vital role in understanding the complex dynamics of fisheries, encompassing both marine and inland ecosystems. The spatial distribution of fish populations, habitats, and environmental factors are all critical components that influence the productivity and sustainability of fisheries. By examining the geographical aspects of fisheries, researchers and managers can gain valuable insights into the interactions between fish populations, their environment, and human activities.
12.1 Importance of Geography in Fisheries
Geography is essential for understanding the spatial dynamics of fisheries, including:
• Habitat mapping: Identifying and mapping fish habitats, such as coral reefs, estuaries, and wetlands, is crucial for managing fisheries sustainably.
• Fish migration patterns: Understanding the migration patterns of fish populations helps researchers and managers develop effective conservation and management strategies.
• Environmental factors: Geography helps researchers understand the impact of environmental factors, such as climate change, ocean acidification, and water quality, on fish populations and ecosystems.
• Human activities: Geography also helps researchers understand the impact of human activities, such as fishing, coastal development, and pollution, on fisheries and ecosystems.

Abstract

Indian Peninsular shield has been thought as tectonically inert and aseismic for many years by the Geoscientists. But, subsequent to the disastrous earthquakes in Killari, Jabalpur and Kutch, studies have been initiated in multiple directions on various aspects of seismicities. The present study is aimed at bringing out a possible picture on the seismic vulnerability of parts of Westernghats of Tamil Nadu using various tectano geomorphic anomalies like unifrequency lineaments and different levels of dissection of plateaus, denudational geomorphic anomalies like anomalous talus materials and fluvial geomorphic anomalies like radial drainages, compressed meanders, eyed drainages and wider flood plains interpreted from the raw and digitally processed Landsat TM and IRS P6 LISS-III satellite datasets. The subsequent generation of individual GIS layers on these anomalies and their integration revealed that the N-S faults are tectonically active and the NE-SW and NNE-SSW faults are active faults. Many earthquake epicenters were also found to fall along these lineaments / faults.

Introduction

The Indian peninsular shield, exposing the Archaeozoie - Proterozoic piles of rocks, is known for its tectonic inertness and the related land stability. Owing to such shield area character, the geoscientists were also having strong convictions for a long time that seismically the area is safe.

Key words : NRSA, Natural Resource and Disaster Management, Agricultural Drought, Ecosystems, Biodiversity Information System, Water Resources, Sea Surface Temperature.

Introduction

A few decades ago, paper maps were the principal means to synthesize and represent geographic information. Manipulating this information was limited to a manual, non-interactive process. Since then the rapid development of new technologies to collect and digitize geographic data, together with an increasing demand for both interactive manipulation and analysis of this data, has generated a need for dedicated software’s namely geographic information systems (GISs).

A GIS is more than a cartographic tool to produce maps. It stores geographic data, retrieves and combines this data to create new representations of geographic space, provides tools for spatial analysis, and performs simulations to help expert users to organize their work in many areas like public administration, transportation networks, military applications and environmental information systems. These above mentioned are few among many others where we are concerned with geographical locations, their present status, its potential for developmental activities, patterns of change over the years and the processes on the surface of the earth.

Geographic information technology is used to manipulate objects in geographic space, and to acquire knowledge from spatial facts. Spatial information theory provides a basis for GIS by bringing together fields that deal with spatial reasoning, the representation of space, and human understanding of space.

Key words : Flood Plains Agro-ecosystem, GIS, RS, Spatial Cropping Pattern, Radiometric Normalization, NDVI, Agricultural Systems.

Introduction

Of late, evidence is accumulating to suggest that high productivity and growth rates achieved during the Green Revolution era in the well-endowed regions of the country (i.e North West India) are no longer being sustained to meet the needs of still increasing population in the country. Past growth sources have nearly exhausted and there is also no scope for expansion of crop land. Indeed pressure for competing land uses will likely reduce area under food grain crops. Shrinking natural resource base (per capita availability of land and water devoted to agriculture), declining quality of resources and environmental degradation issues will imply increasing threat to our ability to meet the basic needs of the growing population of the region unless we shift our effort to potential regions like flood plains of the country for improving productivity.

The flood plain riverine lands of India covering approximately 42 m.ha though most endowed with natural resources and has all the potential of becoming rich, is still economically backward. The reason behind this paradox of extent of poverty in the midst of richness of resources is that the natural resources of the region are not being productively harnessed into the process of the economic development and thus are not delivering their potential and commensurate benefits to the people. The Green Revolution technologies evolved during of 60’s and 70’s had little or no impact in this region of the country. Undesirable spatio-temporal distribution of flood in these areas keeps agriculture under uncertainty and risks. These are also the areas where the poorest are concentrated and agriculture largely continues to be more of subsistence. The nature of agricultural problems are highly variable due to great diversity in the production system as also in the socio-economic conditions of the communities requiring location specific approaches to address the problems and enhance the productivity.

Key words : Glaciers, Glacial Lakes, Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOF), Himachal Pradesh, Glacial Inventory, Glacier Recession.

Introduction

Glaciers are large masses of snow, re-crystallized ice and rock debris that accumulate in great quantities and begin to flow outwards and downwards under the pressure of their own weight. Glaciers form when yearly snowfall in a region far exceeds the amount of snow and ice that melts in a given summer. In this way, massive quantities of glacial material accumulate in relatively small periods of geologic time. The glaciers exist in environments of high and low precipitation and in many temperature regimes; they are found on all the continents except Australia and they span the globe from high altitudes in equatorial regions to the polar ice caps. Presently, 10% of the Earth’s land area (5.8 million square miles) is covered with glaciers storing about 75% of the world’s freshwater. However, during the last Ice Age, glaciers covered 32% of the total land area of the planet.

Introduction

Precision Farming (PF) revolves around the idea that any agricultural land contains wide spatial variations in soil types, nutrient availability, and other important factors. If these variations are not taken into account, then there may be a loss in productivity. Precision farming is one of the most scientific and modern approaches to sustainable agriculture that has gained momentum in 21^st century. Consider the situation: ‘A farmer goes to his/her field with his/her Global Positioning System (GPS) guided tractor. The GPS senses the exact location of the tractor within the field. It sends the signal to a computer on the tractor that has a Geographical Information System (GIS), storing the soil nutrient requirements map in it. GIS, in consultation with a Decision Support System, decides what is the exact requirement of the fertilizer for a given location and then commands a variable rate fertilizer applicator, attached with the tractor, to apply the exact dose at that precise location. All this is done within a second, before the tractor moves further.’ This may sound like an excerpt from a scientific fiction, but this is what precision farming means to the large growers of the United States or European countries and day is not far off when it will be feasible for large Indian farmers as well.

PF refers to a developing agricultural management system that promotes variable management practices within a field according to site or soil conditions. Within a short span of time, this concept has been described with various names viz. farming by soil; farming soil, not fields; farming by the foot; spatially prescriptive farming; computer aided farming; farming by computer; farming by satellite; high-tech sustainable agriculture; soil-specific crop management; site-specific farming; and site-specific crop management.

Key words : Wasteland Reclamation, Poverty Indicators, Food Insecurity, Alternate Livelihood Systems, Rural Infrastructure Index.

Introduction

The countries of Asia and the Pacific region accounts for nearly two-thirds of the chronically poor and undernourished in the world. FAO estimates indicate that, by 2010, Asia will still account for about one-half of the world’s malnourished population (FAO 2000). In Asia, poverty has mainly been rural phenomenon and nearly three-fourth of the poor live in rural areas, with large majority of them dependent on natural resources for employment and income. South Asia, which had a poverty incidence of 43 percent (or about 520 million people), contributed about 40 percent of the world’s poor. Development of natural resources thus offers a potentially enormous means of poverty reduction.

In developing countries poverty and environmental deterioration are often viable in proximity to each other, and have led many to infer that a two-way causality exists between human and environmental degradation. Environmental degradation usually occurs when production and consumption activities of growing population irreversibly weaken nature’s recycling capabilities. These economic activities are also attributed to the development of markets, the advent of modern technology, and the spatial integration of inaccessible areas to market systems. In many developing countries, however, environmental degradation such as soil erosion, deforestation and pollution are most visible around poor settlements, leading some policy makers to highlight the direct links between poverty and the environment.

One has to recognize that both poverty and the environment are descriptions of states of human and natural resource attributes and cannot be reduced to simple one-dimensional cause-effect relationships. Apart from conceptual difficulties in modeling linkages, another handicap has been the absence of adequate or reliable data sets on poverty and environment characteristics. The challenge for operational research is exploring how circumstantial evidence and inductive logic can be used to explain the nature of interactions between the two states. Based on nationwide wasteland statistics vis-à-vis state and district wise poverty estimates available with the concerned agencies, this study is one such attempt, and evaluates the incidence of poverty with the backdrop of natural resources degradation and role of institutional interventions with illustrations from India.

ABSTRACT

The geological and geomorphological features could be clearly demarcated in and around Salem area using IRS -IB LISS II satellite data. Geologically,the study area is classified into four major rock types fissile hornblende biotite gneiss, banded magnetite quartzites, peninsular gneiss, charnockites and quartzites. The geomorphological study reveals the buried pediments medium, buried pediments deep, bazada zone, along with lineaments. Intersections of the lineaments are the most prospective zones for further groundwater targeting. Shallow pediments and pediments are the less groundwater prospective zones. But detailed geophysical survey as required to sink new bore well, dug well, dug cum bore wells.

India is a geologically diverse country with a wide variety of rock types. The major rock types found in India can be broadly classified into the following categories:

Igneous Rocks: These rocks are formed from the solidification of molten magma. They can be further divided into two types:

1. Plutonic (Intrusive) Igneous Rocks: Examples include granite, diorite, and gabbro. These rocks are formed deep within the Earth's crust and have a coarse-grained texture.
2. Volcanic (Extrusive) Igneous Rocks: Examples include basalt, andesite, and rhyolite. These rocks are formed on the Earth's surface from volcanic eruptions and have a fine-grained texture.

Sedimentary Rocks: These rocks are formed by the deposition and consolidation of sediments over time. They can be further divided into various types based on their composition and mode of formation:

1. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks: Examples include sandstone, shale, and conglomerate. These rocks are formed from the accumulation and lithification of fragments of pre-existing rocks.
2. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks: Examples include limestone, dolomite, and rock salt. These rocks are formed from the precipitation of minerals from water bodies.

Abstract

Landslides have become a recurring phenomenon in most of the mountainous regions of the world. In Indian peninsular, the landslides which were mostly confined to the tectonically active Himalayan Mountains once, have started spreading over to the other mountain belts of the Peninsula. The Tirumala – Tirupati hills, which is drawing millions of pilgrims from all over the world is facing landslides especially along the newly built southern uphill Ghat Road. The geology of the area, studied using geomatics tools like Remote Sensing, SRTM based Digital Elevation Models, GPS Survey, etc., showed that Tirumala hills is under the grip of upward tectonic movement as evidenced from the N-S and E–W oriented Pleistocene faults, intensely dissected Plateau top Cuddapah Quartzites, retreating escarpments, exhaustive debris slopes, extensive valley fills along the slopes, colluvial fills in lower slopes, palaeo debris flows along the southern and western obsequent slopes of the Tirumala hills etc. All these indicate the inherent landslide vulnerability of the slopes. The E-W trending dykes which are piercing the slopes and standing as ridges add further landslide vulnerability to such fragile slopes. So, the new ghat road laid along such southern slope is obviously facing landslides. However, the detailed geomatics based studies show that the dykes, valley fills and steep slopes are particularly more vulnerable to landslides. Though remedial measures have been broadly evolved, abandoning the southern uphill new ghat road and widening the older northern downhill ghat road seems to be the better and long term feasible alternative to prevent Landslides.

Abstract

Landslides have become a recurring phenomenon in most of the mountainous regions of the world. In Indian peninsular, the landslides which were mostly confined to the tectonically active Himalayan Mountains once, have started spreading over to the other mountain belts of the Peninsula. The Tirumala – Tirupati hills, which is drawing millions of pilgrims from all over the world is facing landslides especially along the newly built southern uphill ghat road. The geology of the area, studied using Geomatics tools like Remote Sensing, SRTM based Digital Elevation Models, GPS Survey, etc., showed that Tirumala hills is under the grip of upward tectonic movements as evidenced from the N-S and E-W oriented Pleistocene faults, intensely dissected Plateau top Cuddapah Quartzites, retreating escarpments, exhaustive debris slope, extensive valley fills along the slopes, colluvial fills in lower slopes, palaeo debris flows along the southern and western obsequent slopes of the Tirumala hills etc. All these indicate the inherent landslide vulnerability of the slopes. The E-W trending dykes which are piercing the slopes and protruding as ridges add further landslide vulnerability to such fragile slopes. So, the new ghat road laid along such southern slope is obviously facing landslides. However, the detailed Geomatics based studies show that the dykes, valley fills and steep slopes are particularly more vulnerable to landslides. Though remedial measures have been broadly evolved, abandoning the southern uphill new ghat road and widening the older northern downhill ghat road seems to be the better and long term feasible alternative to prevent Landslides in the area.

2.1 Introduction

Topographic expression is the replica of geological structures present within the earths surface. When various types of rocks of an area are displayed on a map (sheet of paper), it is known as Geological Map. Normally geological maps prepared on topographic maps. Surface topography is best presented by contour lines on a plain paper.

The importance of geological maps is to understand the nature of structure and distribution of surface outcrops with their relation to contour lines. Horizontal and dipping beds are easily identified on map because, horizontal beds runs parallel to contour lines while inclined beds cut through different contours. The angle and direction of dip can be calculated from geological maps. Geological maps are of great importance to civil engineers, after studying geological maps and consultation with geologists, civil engineers can advice for construction of engineering structures like excavation of road cuttings and construction of canal, bridges, dams and tunnels etc. Geologists get vital clues about the geological history of an area, and can draw a cross section of an area and know the structure present underground.

ABSTRACT

The Cretaceous formation of Ariyalur area is well known for its lithological and faunal variation. It contains rich assemblages of fossils as well as the occurrence of economic deposits of limestone, gypsum, phosphatic nodules and clays. Representative Uttatur clay samples have been collected and analysed for physical and chemical properties. The physical properties such as fired colour, plasticity, fusing temperature, slaging nature, shrinkage test, bulk density, liquid limit, and plastic limit and Atterberg number etc. of uttatur clays have been determined. The chemical properties of the clays show low in silica and alumina and high iron and lime which make them suitable for low duty refractories and stoneware works.

Introduction

Earth’s magnetic field (MF) is a natural component of environment and is an inescapable factor for all living organisms including plants. Earth has an inner core made of molten iron which rotates at a fairly high speed creating a magnetic field just like a dynamo. This Geo Magnetic Field (GMF) extends from the earth’s interior into outer space. It interacts with the solar wind, which is actually a stream of charged particles emanating from the sun. As earth is engulfed in a GMF, all living organisms, both plants, animals and all biological processes are under its influence. However, local differences in strength and direction of the geomagnetic field have been detected. The vertical component of GMF is maximum at the magnetic poles, which is around 67 μT, and the horizontal component is zero there. Conversely, at the magnetic equator the vertical component is zero and the horizontal component is maximum, about 33 μT (Kobayashi et al., 2004).

Turbulent flows of the fluid metallic inner core of earth mainly contribute to GMF and the effect of external MFs located in the ionosphere and the magnetosphere is very meagre (Qamili et al., 2013). As GMF extends beyond the earth’s surface it is this force along with magnetosphere that protects the earth and its biosphere, from the solar wind by deflecting most of its charged particles (Occhipinti et al., 2014).

Abstract

The Pudukkottai district located in the southeastern tip of Tamil Nadu, India provides a complex geological setting with three litho-tectonic blocks membered by the hard Crystalline rocks of Archaeozoic-Proterozoic Era in the west,Mio-Pliocene Sandstone/Cuddalore Sandstone in the centre and Quaternary sediments in the east. While the western and central blocks are separated by a well-defined NNE-SSW trending fault, the central Mio-Pliocene Sandstone block is cut into two parts by a N-S fault with western static block and the eastern uplifted counterpart. Besides the above, the various drainage anomalies viz; Annular, Deflected and Eyed drainages and compressed meanders interpreted using the raw and digitally enhanced satellite multispectral data show that the N-S oriented faults with oscillations from NNW-SSE to NNE-SSW, NE-SW and E-W orientations are tectonically active in the area. The integration of these active faults with known geothermal springs and the maxima axes drawn from the contours deducted from the temperature of groundwater measured during the predawn hours from the wells revealed that the N-S and NE-SW faults are the probable locales for geothermal resources in the study area. Thus the study demonstrates a newer methodology for locating the geothermal prospects.

Abstract

Geomorphology not only provides the panorama on the external architecture of the Earth surface, but also it is the record of the past geological events including the climate, especially of the Quaternary period. Detailed geomorphology map was prepared using the IRS LISS IV FCC and SRTM data showing the tectonic, denudational and fluvial landforms of Kollai hill, Eastern Ghats, Tamil Nadu. The geomorphic features showed that the Kollai hill can be divided into two as northern and southern blocks separated by a NE-SW active sinistral fault in the overall N-S rectangular hill. The integration all the geological , structural and geomorphic features show that the Kolli hill is under the grip of uplift in the south west with hinge towards north easterly. Because of this, the northern block/rim of the hill is fragmented into a series of East-West trending fracture/ fault swarms which are sympathetic tectonic grains to the Attur graben rimming the Kollai hill to its north. This phenomenon seems to control the overall resources and environment of the hill.

Introduction

The mountains are not only the store houses of natural resources like minerals, water, geothermal springs, forest & biomass etc., but also possesses unique & self-styled ecosystems drafting the mankind from the plains for comfort and livelihood. Further, the tourists are highly attracted by the mountain regions due to the ecosystems, climate and scenic beauty. Due to all these, the resources of the mountains are exponentially exploited during the recent 6–7 decades thus causing phenomenal depletion of natural resources and initiation of chains of environmental disorders, viz., deforestation triggered soil erosion, landslides, debris dumping along the slopes and foot hills, sedimentation of the downhill reservoirs & drainages, all of which in turn induce haphazard flooding. Hence, the Union and various Federal Governments have started working on the restoration of the ecosystems of their respective mountain regions in several nations. In the Indian sub- continent too, both under the Centrally sponsored schemes and the State funding, number of Hill Area Development Programmes have been initiated and going on especially in Himalayas, Easternghats and Westernghats. The state of Tamil Nadu possesses both Easternghats and Westernghats. While the Westernghats are found along the western part of the state with NNW-SSE orientation, the Easternghats represented by the Kollai- Pachhamalai hills, Shevroy - Chitteri – Kalrayan hills and Javadi hills, aligned in N-S direction, are traversing the Central part of Tamil Nadu. To comprehensively understand the resources, hazards potential, the ecosystems and also the modern geological processes which only control and tutor them, a geomatics based study was carried out in Kollai hills so that it can be used as a reference study to all those who are engaged in eco-restoration and hill area development programmes in India.

Abstract

Geomatics (Remote Sensing and GIS) based tsunami damage assessment was carried out for Nagapattinam coast as a part of All India Coordinated Programme of NRDMS, Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi. The paper discusses the methodology and the inferences made for Nagapattinam region, Sirkali block and north Poigainallur panchayat village, holistically for the former and as case studies for the latter two. The regional studies show that the coastal geomorphology has played a significant role in tutoring the tsunami inundation and the damages with beach, dunes, tidal flats, backwaters and rivers / streams facilitating the inundation of tsunami. The studies in Sirkali block show the similar role of geomorphology, but the damage assessment carried out for Water bodies, soil and ground water show appreciable damage to Aquifer in the form of saltwater mixing / intrusion due to tsunami. Detailed geospatial data bases were generated village wise too. On the basis of the studies, possible remedial strategies were also suggested.

Keywords: Remote Sensing, GIS, Tsunami 2004, Damage Assessment, Tsunami mitigation, Nagapattinam.

Abstract

The Tamil Nadu is one of the leading states in groundwater development. Since the surface water resources have been fully exploited for irrigation, the groundwater is massively mined for agriculture, domestic and industrial purposes. The paper provides a synthesis of whole groundwater related issues including basin wise groundwater conditions, the aquifer types, geogenic water quality and quality deterioration due to anthropogenic activities, need for recharge, the utility of Remote Sensing & GIS etc. The paper has come out with set of recommendations as the concluding remarks.

Abstract

Landslides have become a fast spreading epidemic in the mountain belts around the world. As both the natural geosystem and the triggering parameters this phenomenon, the scientists & technocrats from all over the world have started studying it using varying parameters and multivariate advanced scientific tools. In this connection the present study lays an emphasis on the need for giving deserving importance to one of the important geosystem parameters, namely the geomorphology in Landslide Vulnerability Mapping. The same has been accomplished by taking the Nilgiri Mountains of Western Ghats, South India as the test site.

Introduction

Landslides are the most commonly witnessed geohazards in mountainous systems of all over the world causing greater and recurring loss to Man, his properties and to his various developmental programmes. As these landslides mostly occur after heavy rainfalls, it was considered as the most important triggering parameter for the landslides. In indian subcontinent, the landslides of Himalayan region while were inferred to be predominately due to Active tectonics (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10) landslides of Westernghats of Maharastra were explained to be the effect of extensive weathering and the rock falls from the cliff and the summit zone (11,12) but in contrast, the landslides of Nilgiri mountains have been attributed to deforestation, direct entry of rain water into the soil system and the resultant pore pressure increase (13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21) but the studies carried out (22) in the Nilgiri Mountains indicated that various geosystem parameters viz: Lithology, Structure, Geomorphology, Slope etc., occur in various permutations and combinations and assign different landslide vulnerability grades to the land systems and when such vulnerable zones are interfered by the triggering parameters, the landslides occur.

Geomorphological mapping is the process of creating detailed maps that illustrate the physical features of the Earth's surface, including landforms, soil types, vegetation, and water resources. These maps can be used to better understand the underlying geology and topography of a region, and can be used for a variety of purposes, such as land-use planning, environmental management, and geological hazard assessment.

Geomorphological maps are typically created using a combination of field observations, aerial photography, and remote sensing data. Field observations involve physically visiting a site and making detailed observations of the landforms, soil types, and vegetation. Aerial photography involves taking high-resolution photographs of the Earth's surface from an airplane or satellite, which can be used to create detailed maps of the area. Remote sensing data can also be used to create geomorphological maps, including data from satellites, radar, and LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) systems. These technologies allow scientists to gather data about the Earth's surface without physically visiting the site, and can provide highly accurate information about the topography, geology, and vegetation of an area. The resulting maps can be used for a variety of purposes, including land-use planning, natural resource management, and hazard assessment. For example, geomorphological maps can be used to identify areas of high risk for landslides, floods, or earthquakes, and can be used to develop strategies for managing these hazards.

Introduction

Geomorphology is the study of earth’s landscapes over time and space, and involves an analysis of both its surface features as well as the processes responsible. Historically, the subject evolved through monumental studies on supposed evolution of the landscape, based on intuitive knowledge of the researchers on landscape response to endogenic and exogenic forces, as well as visions of possible changes over a time scale of centuries to millennia or more. Too much emphasis on the study of possible landscape evolution in an era of little technological back-up facilities meant that the discourses were largely philosophical in nature, with fewer measurable parameters to substantiate the concepts or the reasoning, although reflecting deep understanding of the researchers involved. As older concepts began to be confronted with newer ones, and applied aspects started receiving greater attention, a need was felt for quantification of the features and processes. This was more so for an understanding of the fluvial landscape, although aeolian and other process-based studies also gradually incorporated quantitative analysis as a means of understanding the landscape. Despite the awareness, lack of adequate equipment hindered the progress of quantification in the pre-World War II period.

1.1 Geomorphology

Geomorphology is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features created by physical or chemical processes operating at or near the earth's surface.

The surface of the earth is unstable and affected by a combination of surface and geologic processes that cause tectonic uplift and subsidence. Surface processes are mainly physical and chemical action of water, wind, ice, igneous activity and activities of living organisms on the surface of the earth. Upliftment of mountain ranges, the growth of volcanoes, isostatic changes in surface elevation and formation of deep sedimentary basins are categorized under Geological processes.

Main geomorphological processes occurring in nature are as follows:

1.1.1 Aeolian processes

Aeolian processes include activities of the winds, its ability to shape the surface of the earth. Wind acts as an effective agent of erosion, transportation and deposition materials, and large supply of fine, unconsolidated sediments. Aeolian processes are important in desert (arid) environments.

1.1.2 Fluvial processes

Moving water in a river channel, is able to mobilize sediment and transport it downstream. The rate of sediment transport depends on the availability of sediment itself and the discharge by river.

River originates from mountain with V shaped valley, which later increases in size, merging with other rivers. The network of rivers thus formed is known as drainage system. These systems show four general patterns viz. dendritic, radial, rectangular, and trellis etc. In the mature stage, the river form alluvial flood plains, meanders and ox-bow lakes. Finally when it merges to ocean, forms delta.

Abstract

The landslide vulnerability of the state of Mizoram is already high due to lithology, structure, geomorphology and seismotectonics and also the rainfall, like the other states of the northeastern region of India. The extensive mining activities along the highways for the building and road materials appear to cause additional problems of landslides. So two prominent landslides occurring in Keifang and Tlungvel quarries,Mizoram were studied. Besides taking stock of the geosystems, boreholes were drilled in both slides and from the total depth drilled and the modified core recovery, the RQD were worked out for the rocks which indicates that geotechnically the rocks of Keifang quarry are weak when compared to Tlungvel quarry. The geophysical surveys too lead to similar inferences. On the basis of the studies a set of mitigation strategies have been suggested.

ABSTRACT

The present work relates to geological and commercial aspects of pyroxene syenite (Green Onyx) occuring in and around Sivamalai of Periyar District in Tamil Nadu. The alkaline complex of Sivamalai comprises syenites-, nepheline syenite and their variants. Pyroxene syenite is possibly the oldest within the syenite complex occurring as minor massifs, elongated linear bodies, -arcuate islands and enclaves within feldspar syenite are observed in the hillocks North East of Sivamalai, namely Chennimalai and its southern extensions. On the commercial point of view, the pyroxene syenite in the study area occupies nearly 30 square -kilometres area and can be categorised as Kalleri Block, Neykkarampalayam Block and Sivamalai Block. The observed petrographic and petrochemical characters of the alkaline rocks of the study area favours magmatic origin for these rocks. A detailed geological study and random market survey of individual syenite bodies proved the true worthiness of the material Green-Onyx as a dimensional stone with substantial resources and market potential.

Abstract

The damages caused by the tsunami surge of 26, December 2004 could not be recuperated. There is no second opinion for the above statement as attested by the consequences of tsunami surge on the coastal landforms, human lives, properties, biological assets, etc., The attempt made to evaluate the damages caused by the tsunami surge along the study area divulges various factors regarding the response of the coastal environment to this weird phenomenon. Kanyakumari district witnessed the tidal inundation of 50 – 450 m, the least along Colachel and the maximum in Kanyakumari and Muttom coasts. Run-up elevations were seen even up to 6 m in Manakudi and Colachel coasts. In major parts, the beaches of the study area had endured lofty erosion of beach sediments. High occurrence of Casualty was reported in the Coasts of Colachel, Kotilpadu, Manakudi and Azhikkal. Similarly, loss of man-made structures were also observed to be high along the Coast of Manakudi, Colachel, Kotilpadu, Azhikkal and Muttom. Costly articles like boats, fishing nets, etc., were also damaged in Kanyakumari, Pallam, Muttom, Kadiapatanam, Kesavanputhenthurai and Colachel. The quality of water has also been found to be affected with high level of pH and TDS in the coasts of Manakudi and Colachel. Such Colossal damages in the area is attributed to its geo-position exactly at the receiving point of the diverted tsunami surge by Sri Lanka. Bathymetry also seems to have played a crucial role in determining the intensity and angle of the seismic wave propagation in the area.

Keywords: Tsunami, India, Damages in Kanyakumari, Evaluation, Map, GIS.

Abstract

Natural resources and agricultural production processes vary spatially. Capturing the spatial variations in data and knowledge of natural resources and production processes has been a major challenge for efficient and sustainable management of agricultural production systems. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) provide an effective platform for storing and mapping spatial data and modeling the relevant processes. Huge volumes of geospatial data on specific themes such as soils, water, climate, and other natural resources, are being collected by public and private agencies. However, currently it is difficult for most users to access the data and integrate them into a GIS platform to derive useful information and knowledge for specific applications. There is a need to create geospatial data and knowledge systems that can provide efficient, on-demand and remote access of spatial data to users to enable development of a variety of GIS applications for agricultural and natural resources management. The design of a prototype geospatial library to provide web-based access to geospatial data, services, and learning and knowledge resources that can support agricultural and natural resources management is presented. The design is scalable and sufficiently general to allow a range of agricultural and natural resources management applications across different spatial scales.

Keywords: Agriculture, GIS, Geospatial library, Knowledge Management, Natural Resources

The term ‘geo’ is a Greek word, it means the earth, and the term ‘spatial’ means parameter/feature measured, mapped or modeled with reference to distance or space. The geospatial technology refers to the technology that measure, model, analyze, map, or predict the features or phenomena that occur on earth and its surface.

Food security is paramount for developing any nation reliant upon sufficient crop production. The decline in crop production significantly impacts food security, leading to an imbalance between global food demand and agricultural output. Multiple factors contribute to reduced agricultural productivity, including abiotic factors like water scarcity, poor soils, and unsuitable temperatures, as well as biotic factors such as pests, diseases, and weeds attacking crops. These challenges result in inefficient input utilization and decreased crop yields, ultimately threatening food security. Pests, diseases, and weeds profoundly impact plant health, causing substantial losses in crop production. Geospatial technology is employed throughout the agricultural cycle, from initial crop health assessment to forecasting disease outbreaks. Despite the significant challenges global and local agriculture face in achieving optimal outputs and securing food for the world population, the wealth of geospatial data and technological advancements plays a crucial role. They aid decision-makers in formulating strategies to combat various pests and diseases affecting plant health and food crops, thereby contributing to improved agricultural outcomes and food security. This chapter provides a comprehensive appraisal of existing literature to elucidate the role of geospatial technologies, encompassing Geographic Information System (GIS), remote sensing, and the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), which are utilized for data collection, mapping, analyzing distribution, and predicting events related to plant health.

Introduction

High degree of spatial variability in soil properties is observed at different scales. This variability is generally originated from the combined effect of physical, chemical or biological processes operating with different intensities at different scales (Goovaerts 1998). Knowledge of this spatial variationof soil properties is important in several land management applications e.g. variable rate application of nutrient and water in agricultural production system, land suitability classifications, modeling water balance components at landscape scales, precision farming etc. The concept of ‘management zone’ was also evolved in response to this large variability with the main purpose in efficient utilization of agricultural inputs with respect to spatial variation of soils and its properties (Franzluebbers et al. 1996, Atherton et al. 1999, Malhi et al. 2001). Therefore, an appropriate understanding of spatial variation of soil properties is essential. The most important way to gather knowledge in this aspect is to prepare soil maps through spatial interpolation of point-based measurements of soil properties. Here, a case study is discussed where soil water retention at two critical levels e.g. field capacity (FC) and permanent wilting point (PWP) was spatially characterized through geostatistical approaches. Because these two soil moisture contents guide farmers to apply right amount of irrigation water at right time. The study was carried out at the experimental farm of ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India (28°37′-28°39′ N, 77°8′ 30″-77°10′30″ E, 217-241 m above mean sea level). A detailed discussion of the study is available in Santra et al. (2008)

Introduction

Soil organic carbon (SOC) content plays a key role in maintaining soil fertility in agricultural farm. At present, there has been great interest to reduce the atmospheric CO₂ level through a chain of increasing vegetation carbon pools first and then to store them as soil carbon pool. To quickly assess the soil carbon restoration programmes, it is important to know how much soil carbon is stored in an agricultural farm through adoption of different land management practices. Average SOC content is considered in most soil carbon pool calculations in spite of its large spatial variation in landscape, and thus leads to inaccurate estimate of SOC stock for an area. Therefore, reliable estimates of SOC pools and their spatial variability are essential to establish the soil carbon sequestration programmes at different landscape scales. Here, a case example of assessing the spatial variation at a typical agricultural farm is discussed. The experimental field was located at Badoda village of Jaisalmer district, Rajasthan covering an area of about 76.12 ha. The farm lies between 265^o2′30″-26°53′30″ N and 71°12′15″-71°13′15″ E (Fig. 24.1) and 20 km away from Jaisalmer city in eastward direction. Elevation of the farm ranged from 232 m to 248 m above mean sea level with an overall slope from south to north. Among total area of the farm, 85.38% area was under cultivation in four main blocks: block A, B, C, and D whereas rest area was under grassland.

Abstract

Any naturally occurring phenomena varies both in space and time. This variability is a result of various natural process and hence deterministic. Geostatistics is a tool to help us to characterize spatial variability and uncertainty resulting from imperfect characterization of the variability. Geostatistics involves the theory of regionalized variables, which dates back to the early fifties and includes concepts of random function and stationarity. Geostatistical mapping can be defined as analytical production of maps by using field observations, explanatory information, and a computer program that calculates values at locations of interest. There area number of spatial prediction models depending on the amount of statisticsinvolved in the analysis. Kriging is a generic name adopted by the geostatisticians for a family of generalized least- squares regression algorithms and various kriging algorithms viz., punctual kriging, block kriging, co-kriging and universal kriging are explained in this paper. Applications of geostatistics can be found in many varied disciplines ranging from the geology to soil science, hydrology, meteorology, environmental sciences, agriculture and even structural engineering and some of its applications are summarized in this paper.

Keywords :Geostatistics, spatial variability, kriging, model

It is a non-accelerated frictionless horizontal motion where pressure gradient balances coriolis acceleration as shown in Fig.4.1 in both the hemispheres.

Abstract

The recent disastrous tsunami of December 26, 2004 has not only alarmed the administrative and the planning machinery to have tsunami mitigation strategies for India. But also signalled the geoscientists to have a deeper look on the phenomenon of tsunami and the vulnerabilities of the Indian coasts. In this context, the authors have conducted a study primarily to evaluate the responses of the coastal Geosystems to the tsunami inundation, as it is a very vital component in f raming strategies for mitigating the effect of tsunami. The study has revealed that the central coastal parts of Tamil Nadu, namely Cuddalore – Nagapattinam districts, which were worst affected by the recent tsunami, expose a combination of landforms of tectonic, fluvial, fluvio – marine and marine processes. These different landforms have responded differently to the recent tsunami viz: as facilitators, carriers, accommodators, absorbers, barriers etc. on the basis of the same, different eco – friendly, cost effective and result oriented methods are suggested to mitigate the effects of tsunamis.

Introduction

Tsunami is an unfamiliar term and also a scantily referred term in the dictionaries in India till December 26, 2004. Even the students of geosciences were all along been taught about the origin and impact of tsunamis by citing examples from the Pacific Ocean. But the term tsunami has now become a widely known and a commonly deliberated phenomenon in India amongst various cross sections of the society irrespective of age and literacy. However, the historical tsunami data (USGS & GSI websites)

13.1 Introduction

Geothermal energy is the nature-based heat generated from within the earth. Underneath the earth’s relatively thin crust, temperature range from 1000 to 4000°C & in some areas, pressures exceed 138 MPa is available. Geothermal energy is most likely generated from radioactive thorium, potassium and uranium dispersed evenly throughout the earth’s interior which produce heat as part of the decaying process. This process generates enough heating, keep the core of the earth at temperature approaching 400°C. Composed primarily of molten nickel & iron, the core is thought to be surrounded by a layer of molten rock, the mantle at approximately 100°C. Nine major crustal plates float on the mantle & currents in the mantle cause the plates to drift, colliding in some areas and diverting in others. When two continental plates converge a complex series of chemicals in the form of molten magna rises in the earth’s crust and depending upon its magnitude, it may break the crust and reach at the earth surface. Volcano, hot spring, geysers & fumaroles are natural geothermal resources near the surface and perhaps where economic drilling operations can tap their heat and pressure.

Geraniaceae is a family of about 7 genera and 830 species which are
cosmopolitan in distribution and found widely in temperate and tropical regions.
Only 3 genera and about 25 species have been reported from India, mainly
from Himalayas. Some of the larger genera along with their approximately
reported species in parenthesis include Geranium (430), Pelargonium (280),
Erodium (80) and Monsonia (25). Well-known ‘geranium oil’ is distilled from
Pelargonium odoratissinum.
Pelargonium (syn. Geraniums, Stork bills) is an extremely popular garden
plant and has considerable economic importance in the market of ornamental
plants. Its genotypes and hybrids are grown in temperate regions. Its value as a
potential essential oil yielding crop is also mentioned. Geranium oil is widely
used in perfumery, cosmetics, pharmaceutical, and food industries. Oil has
anti-microbial, and pesticidal activities. The genus Pelargonium comprises
more than 280 species in 13 sections of which 33 have been originated in
southern parts of South Africa (Van der Walt and Vorster, 1988). It has been
reported that nearly 80 per cent diversity of Pelargoniums is centered in Cape
Province if African continent (South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique).
Pelargoniums are popular seed and vegetatively propagated bedding and
pot plants with numerous phenotypes (Fish type, Ivy leaved, Regal, Angels,
Fancy leaves, Scented, Oak leaf) and cultivars (Double/ Bar/ Centre/ Ring/
Vein/ Picotee pattern/ Tulip/ Carnation/ Phlox/ Birds egg flowered) available
on the world market. True geranium is a bushy, aromatic plant. The stem is
cylindrical, woody at the base, pubescent, green when young and turning
brown with age. The leaves are highly aromatic in nature. Flowers are regular
and devoid of spur like appendages.

Introduction
Geranium is also known as cranesbill, scented geranium/rose geranium. It is adaptable over a wide range of soil conditions and drought tolerant. Being perennial aromatic herb, it is cultivated for rose scented essential oil extracted from leaves and tender shoots. The oil thus obtained is also called pelargonium oil or rose-geranium oil. The oil is of varied colour from colourless to pale yellowbrown or greenish. The genus Pelargonium belongs to the family Geraniaceae.
Origin
Geranium is native to sub-tropical southern Africa, and the most popular of bedding and green-house plants. The genus Pelargonium consists of about 600 species, which are annual, biennial, and perennials found in Cape province of South Africa.
Botany
The cultivated geraniums may belong to herbaceous to woody with thick fleshy leaves of round to lobed shape and deep cut. The flowers are present in terminal clusters with varying colours from white to pink, deep red and violet. Cultivated species are hybrids, having double flowers of mixed colours.

.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of the Cape Province in South Africa.

• Grown in India, South Africa, Belgium, China, Congo, Egypt, France, Madagascar, Morocco, Reunion Islands, Spain, former USSR countries.

• Commercially cultivated mainly in Nilgiris and Kodaikanal hills of Tamil Nadu, and in and around Bangalore in Karnataka.

5.2. Economic importance

• Very profound and strong rose like odour.

• Also known as rose geranium.

• Chief constituent of oil - geraniol and citronellol.

Geranium (Pelargonium spp.) belongs to the family Geraniaceae. The name Pelargonium was introduced by Johannes Burman a Dutch Botanist in 1738, from the Greek word “Pelargos” means stork because the seed head looks like a stork’s beak.  Due to their long and beak-shaped fruits, they are also known by the name of cranesbills. Geraniums are popular flowering plants and grown as decorative pot plants for indoor and outdoor. There is a world demand for the rose geranium essential oil of Pelargonium species which contains geraniol, linalool and citronellol, substitutes for the expensive attar of roses in the perfume trade. Pelargonium species was known for their medicinal value by the earliest indigenous people (Swanepoel, 2009).

Geranium (Pelargonium spp.) belongs to the family Geraniaceae. The name Pelargonium was introduced by Johannes Burman a Dutch Botanist in 1738, from the Greek word “Pelargos” means stork because the seed head looks like a stork’s beak. Due to their long and beak-shaped fruits, they are also known by the name of cranesbills. Geraniums are popular flowering plants and grown as decorative pot plants for indoor and outdoor. There is a world demand for the rose geranium essential oil of Pelargonium species which contains geraniol, linalool and citronellol, substitutes for the expensive attar of roses in the perfume trade. Pelargonium species was known for their medicinal value by the earliest indigenous people (Swanepoel, 2009).

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The plants originated from South Africa (Swanepoel, 2009), as well as Reunion, Madagascar, Egypt and Morocco and were introduced to European countries such as Italy, Spain and France in the 17^th century. Geranium includes around 422 species of flowering annual, biennial and perennial plants. Both Geranium and Pelargonium are genera in the Family Geraniaceae. Linnaeus originally included all the species in one genus. Geranium, but they were later separated into two genera by Charles L’ Heritier in 1789. Although members of the Pelargonium genus are often referred to as ‘Pelargoniums’ to try to avoid confusion, many people still use the older common name of ‘Geranium’.

Most of the Pelargonium plants cultivated in Europe and North America have their origins in South Africa. Geranium robertianum is found throughout Europe, Asia and North Africa where it grows on a variety of soils, rocks, tree trunks and decaying organic matter such as logs. It is a component of virtually all forest types there. In the Pacific Northwest it is primarily found west of the Cascade crest although it extends along the Columbia River in Klickitat County. Ecological structure of Geranium robertianum L. populations under natural conditions and in the garden in Poland. Geranium farreri found in China, in south Gansu and north-west Sichuan.

Abstract: Pelargonium (syn. Geranium), has become mainstay in temperate landscapes because of its ease of production and cultivation, long lasting bloom, range of plant habits and diversity of uses (perfumery, cosmetic, pharmaceutical and food industries). Confusion exists about nomenclature and taxonomic revision has attempted. Pelargoniums are popular seed and vegetatively propagated bedding and pot plants with numerous phenotypes (Fish type, Ivy leaved, Regal, Angels, Fancy leaves, Scented, Oak leaf) and cultivars (Double/ Bar/ Centre/ Ring/ Vein/ Picotee pattern/ Tulip/ Carnation/ Phlox/ Birds egg flowered) available on the world market. Their continued popularity has warranted extensive breeding and development of novel phenotypes particularly trailing growth habit, reduced plant size, compact form, manipulation of flowers (size, number, coloration, longevity, timing) and disease resistant cultivars. Increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits, molecular genetic techniques and biotechnological applications are valuable tools aiding modern pelargonium breeders. The need of new cultivars remains strong as divergence among pelargonium market types increases, production system becomes more specialized and new market develops.

Scientific name: Pelargonium graveolens L. Herit
Family: Geraniaceae
Geranium, scientifically known as Pelargonium graveolens L. Herit, belongs to the Geraniaceae family. This aromatic plant is highly valued for its essential oil, which boasts an intense rose-like fragrance. Geraniol and citronellol are the primary constituents of this oil. There are approximately 600 species within the genus Pelargonium, many of which possess a pleasant odor, although only a few have attained commercial significance.
Types of Geranium
There are two primary types of geranium: Algerian or Tunisian Type: Characterized by slender, erect plants with dark pink flowers. This variety contains 0.3% oil, with 57% 1-citronellol. It is commonly grown in the Nilgiris and is unsuitable for wet conditions. Reunion or Bourbon Type: Produces more bushy growth with light-pink flowers. The oil has a higher 1-citronellol content (59.4%). This variety is grown in the Nilgiris and Anamalais and is more suitable for wet conditions.

Gerbera, commonly known as Transvaal Daisy, Barberton Daisy or African Daisy, is cultivated throughout the world under a wide range of climatic conditions for its attractive flowers. It is highly suitable for beds, borders, pots and rock gardens. The wide range of colour and the attractive shape of flowers suit very well in flower arrangements. The cut blooms have long vase life. Today Gerbera is known as an important commercial flower crop and belongs to the most important plant species in the world, together with the rose, chrysanthemum, carnation and tulip. Gerbera is amongst the ten most important commercially grown flower crops in the world.