eChapters

Gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii), a tender, stemless, perennial flowering plant, belongs to family Asteraceae. Gerbera was named in honour of the German botanist and naturalist “Traugott Gerber” who was a friend of Carolus Linnaeus. Gerbera is very popular and widely used as cut flower or as a decorative garden plant. It was discovered in 1878 near Barberton, eastern Transvaal (South Africa), therefore, referred as the Barberton daisy or Transvaal daisy. It is ideal for beds, borders and pots and is the fifth most important cut flower in the world.

Gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii), a tender, stemless, perennial flowering plant, belongs to family Asteraceae. Gerbera was named in honour of the German botanist and naturalist “Traugott Gerber” who was a friend of Carolus Linnaeus. Gerbera is very popular and widely used as cut flower or as a decorative garden plant. It was discovered in 1878 near Barberton, eastern Transvaal (South Africa), therefore, referred as the Barberton daisy or Transvaal daisy. It is ideal for beds, borders and pots and is the fifth most important cut flower in the world.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Gerbera is originated from South Africa. The native distribution of genus Gerbera comprising 30 species, extends to Africa, Madagascar, tropical Asia and South America (Hansen, 1985 and Bremer, 1994). Whereas, it was also reported that gerbera is found in the temperate and tropical parts of Asia and Africa and about 7 species are recorded in India. This plant is distributed in the temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal. Gerbera is commonly seen on the dry slopes near Shimla and on hillsides above Gulmarg in Kashmir (Anon., 1956). The G. jamesonii is found naturally in grassland in sandy soils in Mpumalanga and Barberton district. The genus Gerbera has approximately 14 southern African species, some of which are found only in Western Cape. G. aurantica is endemic to the mist belt grassland region of KwaZulu-Natal and is known from approximately 9 scattered populations from Helahela in the south to Babanango in the north. This species is under threat of extinction due to habitat fragmentation and degradation. In India they are distributed in temperate Himalayas at altitudes of 1300-3200 metres and observed from Kashmir to Nepal.

The genus Gerbera is named in honour of German naturalist Traugott Gerber who travelled in Russia in 1743 and started first botanical garden in Moscow. However, for species i.e. jamesonii, it is a matter of different opinion. The jamesonii was named for Dr. L. S. Jameson, a British colonial statesman in South Africa who was one of the discoverers of this species, whereas in some literature, the species was named after Robert Jameson who collected live specimens while on a prospecting expedition to the Barberton district in 1884, even though the species collected on three earlier occasions by other people. In 1888, Medley Wood, the curator of the Durban Botanical Garden sent plants to Kew, which subsequently flowered. This is native to South Africa, Madagascar, Asia, South America and Indonesia.

The first official description of South African species G. jamesonii was made by J.D. Hooker in Curtis Botanical magazine with coloured illustration in 1889. An active society on this subject is to be found in Australia under the name W.A. Gerbera Society. The society has used a classification system of gerbera. The breeding of gerbera started at the end of the nineteenth century in Cambridge, England, when two South African sp. were crossed. G. jamesonii native to Natal and Transvaal and G. viridifolia from western Cape were crossed together by R. Irwin Lynch in 1887, after both these species were introduced to Cambridge Botanic Gardens by Jameson and the hybrid was named as G. x cantabrigensis.

INTRODUCTION

Gerbera is a herbaceous flower crop with leafless stalk and daisy like flowers. It is popularly known as Barberton daisy, Transvaal daisy, Veldt daisy, African daisy and Hilton daisy. Gerbera is a popular cut flower grown throughout the world. It is ideally suited for flower beds, borders, pots, window boxes and gardens. The gerbera plant is also used in the preparation of traditional Chinese medicine i.e. Tu-er-feng, derived from whole plant of gerbera, is used for curing cold with cough and for rheumatism. Gerberas have wide range of bright, vivid and clear colours. Some of the flower colours available today are pink, yellow, red, scarlet, orange, salmon, lavender, violet, rose, cream and white. They are great plants for adding colour to any room or garden to create festive and elegant display. These spectacular, eye catching flowers are a complement to any kind of flower arrangement or bouquet and have a longer vase life. Their daisy shaped flowers have a velvet texture with green or dark centers and are cherished by florists and the cut flower industry.

It grows well in open tropical and sub tropical regions but in a temperate climate should be protected from frost and cultivated in greenhouses. Production of quality flowers of gerberas can be done under protected conditions, since they require partial shade. In California and Florida, it is grown in outdoors and is becoming increasingly popular as potted plant and bedding plant, whereas in other parts of United States it is cultivated in greenhouses. Gerbera cultivation has emerged as a very important option to progressive farmers in many parts of India, especially in Maharashtra, Karnataka, north-eastern states, U.P. and Uttaranchal.

Abstract: Gerberas are popular seed and vegetatively propagated flower crop with numerous phenotypes, series and cultivars available on the world market. Crop improvement is currently focused on bicoloured mini gerbera, semi-double and spider type forms, and hybrid cultivars with expanded colour range to boost productivity and profitability. Application of genetic engineering techniques and tools are aiding in modern gerbera breeding. The need for new cultivars remains strong as production system become more specialized and new markets develop. Breeding objectives with high priority include cut flower cultivars highly resistant to diseases, tolerant to low temperature, and floral longevity.

Introduction

Gerbera is a herbaceous flower crop with leafless stalk and daisy like flowers. It is also known as Transvaal daisy. Gerbera is a popular cut flower grown throughout the world. It is ideally suited for flower beds, borders, pots and gardens.

In California and Florida, it is grown in outdoors and is becoming increasingly popular as potted plant and bedding plant, whereas in other parts of United States it is cultivated in greenhouses. Gerbera cultivation has emerged as a very important option to progressive farmers in many parts of India, especially in Maharashtra, Karnataka, North Eastern states, U.P. and Uttarakhand.

Genetics

The genus Gerbera belongs to family Asteraceae. Gerbera comprises about 70 species, which are of African and Asiatic origin. The basic chromosome number is n=25. G. jamesonii is a diploid species with somatic chromosome number 2n=50. Among the different species, G. jamesonii is the only species under cultivation.

This chapter introduces Gerbera as a popular cut flower known for its daisy-like blooms, wide range of colours and long vase life. It examines its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics and commercially important varieties. The chapter discusses greenhouse production, environmental requirements, propagation, irrigation, nutrition, cultural practices, pest and disease management, harvesting and postharvest handling. It emphasizes the importance of protected cultivation for producing high-quality gerbera flowers in different agro-climatic regions of India

Seed Germination Test

Germination is the process of emergence and development of seed embryo into a plant under favourable environmental conditions of water, soil, sunlight and temperature. The best example of germination is the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm plant. It reflects the ability of seed to produce a normal plant under favourable environmental conditions. The germination rate of a particular seed lot is a key indicator of its performance in the field.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ number of seeds are used for germination.
2. The seedlings which show the capacity for continued development into normal plant is called_____.
3. The seedlings which do not show capacity for continued development into normal plant is called_____.
4. Seeds which do not absorb moisture till the end of the test period is called _____.

1. GERMINATION TEST PROCEDURES

Although several methods are available for germination testing it is suggested that use one of the two major methods described here because these are adaptable to most environments and in general give uniform results Select 400 seeds randomly and used for germination in 4 replications.

1.1. Top of Paper (TP)

Seeds are placed on one or more layers of moist filter paper or blotter paper in petriplates These petriplates are covered with lid and placed inside the gemination cabinet This is suitable for those seeds which required light Cut the paper to the size and shape of the dishes (Fig. 1).

Place a layer of paper in each dish If the paper is too thin use a double layer Label the top and bottom of each dish with the accession number number of the replicates and date of the test Moisten the paper with water (Fig. 2)

Wild relatives of cultivated plants constitute a part of crop genepool, which possess genes that have great potential for their utilization in crop improvement programmes. Wild genepools especially those occurring in biotically disturbed habitats are under threat of genetic erosion and require immediate collection to make use of their wider adaptability, tolerance/resistance to disease, insect-pests, yield, quality attributes and other biotic and abiotic traits. The wild relatives of crop plants occur in all the major phytogeographical regions of India as component of different vegetation types and exhibit variable life forms and habitat specificity. High priority demand is towards collection of those that are at the risk of erosion due to habitat disturbance by manmade/natural causes and over-exploitation of species for commercial use.

Wild relatives of cultivated plants constitute a part of crop genepool, which possess genes that have great potential for their utilization in crop improvement programmes. Wild genepools especially those occurring in biotically disturbed habitats are under threat of genetic erosion and require immediate collection to make use of their wider adaptability, tolerance/resistance to disease, insect-pests, yield, quality attributes and other biotic and abiotic traits. The wild relatives of crop plants occur in all the major phytogeographical regions of India as component of different vegetation types and exhibit variable life forms and habitat specificity. High priority demand is towards collection of those that are at the risk of erosion due to habitat disturbance by manmade/ natural causes and over-exploitation of species for commercial use.

The centres of endemism are also centres of genetic diversity and consequently centres of speciation. Unless suitable conservation methods are applied, important wild relatives of crop plants and rare endemic species in particular have poor chances of survival. Based on the efforts made in the past for collection of diversity in wild relatives of crop plants priorities have been recommended for their conservation on the basis of species status (endemic, rare/threatened/endangered, etc.) and those that have high demand in crop improvement programmes (Arora and Nayar, 1984; Nayar, 1996, 1997; Wiersema and Leon, 1999; Hanelt and Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, 2001).

All economically important species at the risk of genetic erosion require attention for collection and conservation. Highest priority may be assigned to those having highly specialized habitat requirement and those that are endemic/rare/endangered to Indian region. Species producing seeds in large quantity and having easy method of multiplication or conservation are at lower risk than those producing less seed and of the recalcitrant or orthodox types where the storage protocols have been least worked out. Species having short seed viability or low germinability need special investigation.

1. GERMPLASM

A germplasm is a collection of genetic resources for an organism. For plants, the germplasm may be stored as a seed collection or for trees, in a nursery.

1.1. Conservation methods

1.1.1. In situ conservation

The conservation of species in their natural habitats, is considered the most appropriate way of conserving biodiversity. Conserving the areas where populations of species exist naturally is an underlying condition for the conservation of biodiversity. That’s why protected areas form a central element of any national strategy to conserve biodiversity.

Introduction

According to Frankel (1957), plant introduction is the transposition of a genetic entity from an environment to which it is attuned to one in which it is untried. According to Bennett (1965), the introduction of wild plants into cultivation and the successful transfer of cultivars, with their genotypes unaltered, to new environments is called as ‘primary’ plant introduction and the rest as ‘secondary’ introduction. However, both are equally meaningful for effective use of plant germplasm.

Types of Plant Introduction

1. Primary Introduction

2. Secondary Introduction

1. Primary Introduction

When the introduced crop or variety is well suited to the new environment, it is directly grown or cultivated without any alteration in the original genotype. This is known as primary introduction. E.g. IR. 8, IR 20, IR 34, IR 50 rice varieties; oil palm varieties introduced from Malaysia and Mashuri rice from Malaysia.

Plant genetic resources are the key components of crop improvement because of development of precision breeding system through biotechnological approaches as well as conventional system of breeding like selection and hybridization. Breeding system of hybridization is replaced by cybrid technology that facilitates transferring more qualitative and quantitative traits rapidly within incompatible genotypes. Aonla is mainly recognized for its high nutritive, medicinal and therapeutic properties. It contains high amount of vitamin-C (500-1500mg/100g), it is also rich in pectin, iron, calcium and phosphorus. Dried fruits of aonla can be used in curing haemorrhage, diarrhea, chronic dysentery, diabetes, jaundice, dyspepsia and cough. Recently, aonla gained more popularity in arid and semi- arid region of the country because of its hardy nature, prolific bearing capacity and ability to grow under various adversities as a remunerative crop (Shukla et al.2002). Aonla is the main ingredient of Chavanprash and Triphala powder, used for curing different   human ailments. Fruit contains a chemical substance gallic acid and leucoanthocyanin, having antioxidant property.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is a collection of genetic resources for an organism.
2. The conservation of species in their natural habitats is called _____.
3. _____ is the preservation of components of biological diversity outside their natural habitats.
4. _____ is a type of gene bank that stores seeds as a source for planting in case seed reserves elsewhere are destroyed.

Introduction

Vegetable crops are a big group of crop plants, consisting of diverse kinds with differing breeding systems and varying consumer preferences. In India there are native vegetables like eggplant (Solanum melongena), beans (Lablab purpureus), cucumber (Cucumis sativus) and a few gourds, namely smooth gourd (Luffa cylindrica), ridge gourd (Luffa acutangula), snake gourd (Trichosanthes anguina) and pointed gourd (Trichosanthes dioica), while there are several introduced crops and which have long history of domestication and adaptation like garden pea (Pisum sativum), onion (Allium cepa), bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria), watermelon (Citrullus lanatus), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) etc. and also some others like tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var.botrytis), cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata), chillies, (including Capsicum), frenchbean (Phaseolus vulgaris) etc, which have been introduced during the last 4 or 5 centuries. With such a diversity of crops, characterization and evaluation of genetic resources in each of them become a stupendous responsibility requiring extensive infrastructure facilities and varying methods of evaluation. The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi with its Regional Stations at Shimla, Bhowali, Akola, Thrissur, Jodhpur, Hyderabad, Umiam-Barapani, Base Stations at Ranchi, Cuttack and Satellite centre at Amravati and Indian Institute of Vegetable Research (IIVR), Varanasi-designated as National Active Germplasm Site (NAGS) for vegetable crops and Indian Institute of Horticultural Research (IIHR), Bangalore, are holding over 40,000 germplasm collections in different vegetable crops.

A large number of lines have been collected from various parts of the country. A number of varieties have developed either through selection from local landraces or through hybridization resulting in development of a large number of open pollinated varieties with resistance to some important diseases, such as wilt. Also, a number of hybrid varieties have been developed both by public and private institutions, however there is a scope to increase further yield and nutritional quality using some of the modern techniques, such as molecular marker aided selection. The promising genetic resources utilized in vegetable improvement work have been described under following three heads

As mentioned above, all the present day Bougainvillea cultivars being grown in India are either exotics introduced from abroad (Africa, USA, U.K., South Africa, Australia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Jamaica, Canary Island, Singapore, Java, West Indis etc) or developed by concentrated efforts of nurserymen, individuals or scientific institutions. Bougainvillea are widely grown in Indian gardens. There are numerous varieties and cultivars that are important from floriculture point of view. Most of the present day varieties have arisen through bud sports, chance crossing and induced mutation. India is one of the major repository of wide range of genotypes of Bougainvillea and is perhaps the foremost among nations which have done appreciable good work on Bougainvillea. The genetic variation in plants is considered to be an unlimited resource. The main aim of germplasm collections are assemblies of genotypes or populations representative of cultivars, genetic stocks, wild species etc. which are maintained in forms such as plants, seeds and tissue cultures. The primitive cultivars and wild relatives of crop plants constitute a pool of genetic diversity.  The  germplasm collection and conservation of plant genetic resources provide the diverse raw materials for immediate or future breeding programme. Activities that relate to the conservation and use of plant genetic resources include : exploration and collection; characterization and evaluation; conservation; assessment of variation and identification of useful genes; and exchange and genetic enhancement. Germplasm are the basic raw materials, which after proper screening can be utilized either for direct commercial exploitation or can be used in breeding programme for developing new and novel varieties.

Biodynamic farming is a holistic and sustainable approach to agriculture that views the farm as a self-sustaining ecosystem. This article provides a comprehensive guide for beginners looking to embark on biodynamic farming, covering essential principles, practices, and preparations. It begins with an exploration of the philosophical underpinnings of biodynamic farming, rooted in the teachings of Rudolf Steiner, before delving into practical aspects such as soil health, crop rotation, composting, and pest management. The article also discusses the significance of biodynamic preparations, celestial planting calendars, and certification processes. With a focus on both traditional practices and modern adaptations, this guide aims to equip new biodynamic farmers with the knowledge and tools they need to start their journey toward a more sustainable and regenerative farming system.

For the prospective small business owner who possesses the necessary personal qualities, managerial ability, and capital , and who is not inheriting a family enterprise, there are two ways to get the business started: buy out an existing establishment or start from scratch with a new firm.

Buying an Existing Business

There are both advantages and disadvantages in buying an existing business. If the small business entrepreneur decides to buy an existing business, there are many things (s)he must investigate and analyze the business if (s) he is to make a good purchase decision.

1. Basic Information

1.1. Location and Size
 
Ghana, lying between latitudes 4º 30’ to 11ºN and longitudes 1º 10’E to 3º15’W, shares common borders in the east, north and west with the Republics of Togo, Burkina Faso, and Cote d’Ivoire respectively.  The country covers a total area (including water bodies) of 238,537 square kilometres.  

1.2. Climate
 
Ghana has a tropical climate with temperatures ranging between 21ºC and 32ºC. Mean annual rainfall in Ghana is generally lower in the northern part of the country (800-900 mm) and increases southwards (2100-2200 mm) albeit a small part of the eastern coastal belt has low mean annual rainfall of 700-800 mm. Humidity figures range from 78 to 87 per cent across the country. Although Ghana cannot be described as a mountainous country, there are a number of highlands and steep escarpments in the middle portion and some parts of the northern zone. The land is generally flat with more than half of the country at an altitude of 200 m.

Introduction
Ghee is the pure clarified butter fat prepared chiefly from cream and/or desi butter (Makhan) to which no colouring matter is added.  Ghee manufacture has great significance and relevance to Indian masses and the dairy industry. Ghee is a very popular product since ancient time and has greater demand during festival and other ceremonial functions where use of ghee in food has been considered to delicacy due to its pleasing flavour and aroma. There are sufficient recorded evidence to prove that the manufacture of ghee originated from India and has been used extensively for religious and dietary purposes since Vedic times. Presently about 28% of total milk production is utilized for manufacture of about 1 million tones of ghee per annum. It is the traditional product with an established market. Cow ghee is golden yellow in colour, and is attributed unique therapeutic value.  The colour of buffalo ghee is greenish yellow due to presence of pigments called billirubin and billiverdin. Ghee is characterized by its pleasant, cooked and rich flavour. The preferred texture is of larger uniform size from grains having non-greasy consistency.

Giant granadilla, Passiflora quadrangularis L. (syn. P. macrocarpa M.T. Mast.) is the largest fruit in the genus Passiflora. With more than 450 species, Passiflora is the most important genus of family Passifloraceae. It is further divided into 24 subgenera (Killip, 1938). Most of the species producing an edible fruit belong to subgenera Passiflora and Tacsonia. Many species have ornamental interest because of unique and spectacular flowers, or are used for their sedative, antispasmodic, antibacterial, and insect-resistant properties.

INTRODUCTION

Electronic books are one way to enhance the digital library with global 24X7 access to authoritative information, and they enable users access specific research material easily, quickly and effectively. Library users are also able to remotely search, locate and check out e-books from the libraries using online public access catalogs (OPACS). As with any new opportunity new challenges emerge and utilizing the internet to deliver book content is no exception. Integrating e-books into the digital library has created challenges and opportunities for LIS professionals; publishers and e-books providers.

E-BOOKS

An e-book is based both on emulating the basic characteristics of traditional books in an electronic format, as well as leveraging internet technology to make access to e-books easy and efficient to use.

Electronic books offer creative possibilities for extending access as well as changing learning behavior and academic research. Content can always be accessible regardless of time or place, to be read on Pc or on portable book readers, books need never go out of print and new editions can be easily created. One can carry several times at once on a portable reader and over time build a personal library, features such as full text searching, changeable font size, mark up, citation creation and note taking will enhance usability. Print text can be integrated with multi dimensional object, sound to create a whole new kind of monographic work.

Tinospora cordifolia (Thunb.) Miers (family: Menispermaceae) commonly known as “Amrita” or” Guduchi” of “Giloy” is a climbing shrub found throughout India. T. cordifolia has high medicinal value in the world and is also the number one recommended natural herb for the Indian system of medicine (ISM) which has been used over centuries to treat various diseases. The roots and stems contain several secondary metabolites having curative properties. The species is endemic to India and is common throughout tropical and subtropical zones at an altitude of 600 m.

Species

• Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hook. F & Thoms
• Cocculus cordifolius DC.
• Menispermum cardifolium Willd
• T. glabra (N. Burm.) Merr.

Morphological characteristics

It is a big climber that grows over the highest trees in the forest and produces aerial roots up to 10 metres long. It’s a sprawling climbing shrub with a slew of elongated twining branches. Giloy leaves are simple, exstipulate, alternating, with long petioles up to 15 cm long, pulvinate, and roundish at the base and apex, with the basal one being longer and twisted partially and halfway around. Oval-cordate or roughly oval lamina, 15-20 cm long and 10-15 cm wide, 7 nerved and deeply cordate at base, glabrous above, membranous, whitish yellow with a conspicuous reticulum beneath.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ seed is one of the oldest condiments the human race has ever known.
2. Sesame seed contains _____ oil and _____ protein.
3. Sesame oil contains about _____ % oleic acid.
4. Isolation distance for gingelly certified seed production is _____.

Shoot borer: Conogethes punctiferalis: Pyraustidae

The main damage done by the caterpillar of this pest is to bore holes in the pseudostem and to plug it with excreta, causing dead hearts. Larva is pale greenish with pinkish tinge and dark head and has fine hairs on the body with a pro thoracic shield. Adult is a medium sized moth, pale yellowish with small black spots on the fore and hind wings.

Management involves spraying dimethoate or malathion 1.5 ml/lit or phosphamidon 0.75 ml/lit of water. This is mainly intended to manage the adults flying in the crop canopy and the first instar caterpillars that are seen on the outside of the plants and before thsy enter the pseudostem. The spray has to be given at the very first spotting of dead haearts.

7.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated from Tropical South East Asia.

• Cultivated in India, China, Jamaica, Australia, Mexico, North and West Africa and Taiwan, Fiji, Mauritius, Brazil, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Bangladesh.

• In India, cultivated in Gujarat, Kerala, Arunachal Pradesh, Odisha, Meghalaya, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.

• Karnataka, Odisha, Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Gujarat together contribute 65 per cent to the country’s total production.

7.2. Economic importance

• India, China and the Japanese people use ginger as food

• Used as drug in cold, cough, vomiting, dizziness, hypertension, impaired vision problems, digestion, fever and stomach diseases.

• Dry ginger and pepper along long pepper tea helps to remove mucus in the body for a long time and helps to protect health.

1. INTRODUCTION

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) is a perennial herb and the economic part is underground stem (rhizome), which is used as a spice. It is native to tropical South-East Asia, introduced into the West Indies, African countries and other tropical belt of the world. The ginger rhizome is harvested between 6 and 12 months after planting and used as spice in the fresh condition,  peeled and split dried or powedered forms. Ginger is utilized widely as a spice, for pickles, candies and as a medicinal herb. The anti-inflammatory and anti-nausea qualities of ginger have applications in the pharmaceutical industry. Ginger and supplements derived from ginger have received attention for the treatment of chronic inflammation. Administration of ginger has resulted in decreased symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis (Srivastava and Mustafa, 1992) and gingerol (a component of ginger) has been reported to have anti-inflammatory actions (Kiuchi et al., 1992; Tjendraputra et al., 2001).

Ginger is used extensively as a spice in cuisines throughout the world. Ginger belongs to Zingiberaceae family and an English botanist William Roscoe (1753-1831) gave this plant the name Zingiber officinale in the year 1807. The name of the genus Zingiber derives from a Sanskrit word denoting “horn shaped” in reference to the protusions on the rhizomes (Ghosh et al., 2011). It is an oldest rhizome widely domesticated as a spice where the edible part is the swollen underground stem or rhizome. The Zingiberaceous plants have strong aromatic and medicinal properties and are characterized by their tuberous or non-tuberous rhizomes (Chen et al., 2008). Ginger is a medicinal plant that has been widely used all over the world, since antiquity, for a wide array of unrelated ailments including arthritis, cramps, rheumatism, sprains, sore throats, muscular aches, pains, constipation, vomiting, hypertension, indigestion, dementia, fever and infectious diseases (Ali et al., 2008). Ginger has direct anti-microbial activity and thus can be used in treatment of bacterial infections (Tan and Vanitha, 2004).

English name : Ginger
Botanical name : Zingiber officinale Rosc.
Family : Zingiberaceae
Chromosome number : 2n = 22
Centre of origin : South East Asia
Ginger of commerce is the rhizome derived from Zingiber officinale. This plant is an herbaceous perennial but usually is cultivated annually. Belonging to the family Zingiberaceae, it is known as Adraka in Sanskrit and Adrak in Hindi. Ginger contains 6.5% oleoresin, commercially known as Gingirene, extracted from ground ginger using solvents. The composition of dry ginger includes 10.85% moisture, 1.8% volatile oil, 19.6% water extract, 6.0% cold alcohol extract, 53% starch, 7.7% crude fibre, 12.4% crude protein, 6.64% total ash, and 0.14% acid-insoluble ash. The volatile oil is a pale yellow liquid with a warm, spicy, sweet, aromatic fragrance and a pungent taste. Its primary constituent is zingiberene, a sesquiterpene, while its pungency is attributed to zingerone. Ginger is known to contain around 200 different volatile compounds.

INTRODUCTION

The Ginkgo tree (Ginkgo biloba) is the only living representative of the order Ginkgoales, a group of gymnosperms of the family Ginkgoaceae. Ginkgo tree can live for as long as 1000 years and has been present for over 250 million years (“Living Fossil”). The name Ginkgo is believed to have come from the Chinese word sankyo or yin-kuo, meaning “hill apricot” or “silver apricot”. The species name “biloba,” meaning two lobes, refers to the unique twolobed, fanlike leaves. Ginkgo has been used as both food and medicine for thousands of years. It is the only tree to have survived atomic blast in Hiroshima (Singh et al., 2008).Seeds of Ginkgo were recorded in the early Chinese records on herbals as a medicine.

G. biloba extract (GBE), is the extracts of Ginkgo leaves, and is available as filmcoated tablets, liquid formulations or injectable in markets of Europe and America.

Standardized extract of the leaves of the G. biloba, labeled EGb761, is one of the popular herbal supplements. GBE has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for centuries for treating circulatory disorders, asthma, tinnitus, vertigo, and cognitive problems. Currently, GBE is among the most commonly taken phytomedicines globally, and is approved in Germany for treatment of cerebral insufficiency (memory loss associated with Alzheimer, vascular or multiinfarct dementia) and conditions such as, tinnitus (ringing in the ears), vertigo and intermittent claudication that results in poor circulation (Mohanta, 2012).

Abstract

The sustainable management of plant genetic resources is of great concern as increasing population and rapid technological strides are putting enormous pressure on this country’s nutritional and food security. Management of plant genetic resources at national level generates and uses enormous data and analysis of these data is crucial to the effectiveness of PGR management process and can add significantly to the value of genetic resources. A GIS is a database management system that can simultaneously handle data representing spatial objects and their attribute data. GIS allows us to view, understand, question, interpret, and visualize data in many ways that reveal relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of maps, globes, reports, and charts. It can play an important role in the management of large and complex PGR datasets. The article analyses the potential uses of GIS in plant genetic resources management in India covering various activities such as germplasm exploration and collection, characterization and evaluation, plant health management, documentation and conservation.

Key words : plant genetic resources, germplasm, conservation, documentation, DIVA-GIS,

Abstract

The study area falls in the southern part of the Indian Peninsular comprising hard crystalline rocks of Archaeozoic and Proterozoic Era. In the present study, the GIS based 3D visualizations of gravity, magnetic, resistivity and topographic datasets were made and therefrom the basement lineaments, shallow subsurface lineaments and surface lineaments/faults were interpreted. These lineaments were classified as category-1 i.e. exclusively surface lineaments, category-2 i.e. surface lineaments having connectivity with shallow subsurface lineaments and category-3 i.e. surface lineaments having connectivity with shallow subsurface lineaments and basement lineaments. These three classified lineaments were analyzed in conjunction with known mineral occurrences and historical seismicity of the study area in GIS environment. The study revealed that the category-3 NNE-SSW to NE-SW lineaments have greater control over the mineral occurrences and the N-S, NNE-SSW and NE-SW faults/lineaments control the seismicities in the study area.

Abstract

The time-transgressive changes in the landscape architecture of the Rameswaram island located in the semiarid tract of southeastern India, was animated using ARC/INFO GIS. The animation has shown that the Rameswaram island has evolved through an interplay of tectonic. fluvial, marine and aeolian activities and that the Aeolian activity was accentuated during 1921-1990 A.D

Introduction

The state of Tamil Nadu in the southeastern fringe of India has well evolved riverine ecosystem in the east and a 900 km. long coastal ecosytem in the eastern fringe. From Vedaranniyam in the northeast to Cape Comorin in the southwest these fluvial and coastal ecosystems show evidence of Aeolian activity, especially during the Holocene. Several researches1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13,14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 have studied the Quaternary tectonic, fluvial, fluviomarine and marine processes in this part of the semi-arid tract.

Abstract

Runoff from rainfall is an important component of the hydrological cycle. Estimation of runoff is critical for the design of hydrological structures and drainage systems in watersheds. Different soils, land use, and water management practices affect runoff differently. In real watersheds, land use, soils and weather conditions vary spatially over the geographical area of the watershed leading to spatial variations in runoff. Also, most watersheds form a part of larger drainage basin or a large watershed consisting of several such subwatersheds. Each subwatershed is hydrologically connected to the other subwatersheds of the basin. A comprehensive GIS based decision support system (DSS) for estimation of runoff that includes the spatial variations in rainfall and natural resources is presented. The DSS is developed as a deployable application by integrating independent GIS layers of watershed features created in ArcGIS with MapObjects in VB, for a case study watershed - the KK3 watershed in Mahbubnagar district of Andhra Pradesh, India. The DSS generates thematic maps of spatial variations in runoff on individual rainy days for the subwatersheds.

Keywords : GIS, GUI, Land use, Rainfall, Remote Sensing, Runoff, Soil, Sub-watershed, Watershed 228 Geospatial Technologies for Natural Resources Management

This chapter explains how natural disasters are major catastrophic events, which are often aggravated by human intervention, resulting in adverse conditions affecting both natural resources and human habitats. Though drought is as disastrous as any other geohazard, it differs from other geohazards such that it is a ‘creeping phenomenon’, making its onset and end difficult to determine. Only a continuous monitoring of critical parameters ranging from crop failure to joblessness and shifting population, etc, could indicate drought in an area. In this chapter, we demonstrate a GIS based drought forecasting and monitoring model taking Gubbi Taluk of Karnataka as a case study. The approach includes creation of a spatial database of 17 critical parameters and their integration in GIS environment by developing a suitable rating and ranking scheme for the generation of drought severity map. The results have shown that drought could be monitored with the studied parameters and if suitable remedial measures are implemented, their effectiveness could also be monitored with this GIS model.

INTRODUCTION

India is a large country in terms of geographical area, exhibiting greater agro-climatic variation. The country is susceptible to several natural disasters, which are a major constraint to developmental activities. 

INTRODUCTION

Coastal zones are always dynamic and active, because of the multivariate morpho tectonic and morpho dynamic processes, viz: tectonic, fluvial, marine and aeolian which act in varying degrees and duration along the coasts. As these geomorphic / morpho dynamic processes act in varying permutations and combinations in different segments of the coasts, the land - ocean interactive phenomenon vary greatly in time and space, which in turn frequently and dynamically alter the coastal environment, and cause fragility to the coastal ecosystems. Further, as the coastal zones act as the junction between the Continents and the oceans, even mild earth movements exhibit exemplified expressions in land - water distribution pattern along the coasts. The green house effect and the much apprehended sea level rise and the disasters like cyclones also contribute in their own way in accelerating such land - water distribution / land - ocean interactive phenomenon.

Abstract

The emergence of Remote Sensing and GIS technologies has substantially eased the problems of groundwater targeting in hard rock aquifer systems. Proper utilization of these can provide more vital information in managing such scarce resource. In this context, a new technique of GIS based visualization of groundwater levels of different periods (1985- 1990 -1995) was attempted for a part of Western Ghats hill-plain region of Tamil Nadu and various groundwater features viz: ridges, valleys, domes and basins were interpreted. The integration of such groundwater features of different periods and their analysis with structural features provided some newer information on geosystem processes and their interface dynamics with hydrosystems, from which, certain strategies were suggested for better groundwater management in hard rock areas.

Topology building

Boolean operations

Query and model building

Customization

Introduction

At human scales, the world consists of objects, events, processes, and a background environment. Cognition is about knowledge: its acquisition, storage and retrieval, manipulation, and use by humans and other intelligent creatures. Cognition includes sensation and perception, thinking, imagery, reasoning and problem-solving, memory, learning, and language. Cognitive structures and process are part of the mind, which emerges from a brain and nervous system inside of a body that exists in a social and physical world. Spatial cognition deals with the cognition of spatial properties of the world, including location, size, distance, direction, shape, pattern, movement, and inter-object relations. GIS design will be largely influenced by spatial cognition.

8.1 INTRODUCTION

To implement a good GIS project, a well structured project design and management are essential. Well planned project will give fruitful result within the stipulated time. Project not completed in time will not incur more cost and also the time delay will add negative value to the project. Hence all the elements in project planning and implementation should be considered to have a desired result. Some of the issues are also present in GIS and they will be rectified in the next decade.

8.2 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

Any project is coming into reality due to necessity. If water scarcity is more in a hard rock region with sufficient rainfall, it is important to augment groundwater resource using rain water harvesting structures. It is important to build water harvesting structures like check dam, percolation pond in suitable locations so that groundwater recharge will be more. Hence a problem is identified and the project work may be carried out by a government or private organisation and the result is given to the government to implement the project. Likewise many area may require a project in GIS environment for planning. Once a project is created any development taking place can be added and GIS database is updated.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Geographic Information System handles large volumes of data. It is important to know the nature of data, instruments from which the data is collected and represented in computers. GIS data is either spatial or aspatial. Data is an important component in GIS. Digital data are available for some projects. but for many projects, input data may not be available. Now-a-days, data is supplied by many government, private organizations and also available on internet. If data for a particular project is not available, then the user has to collect the data from satellite imageries, GPS and other instruments and maps from various sources.

Spatial Data

All locations in the earth surface are spatial data. Location of a city, location of a river, location of a lake are represented in earth by their latitude or longitude in global coordinate system or as x,y coordinate in Cartesian coordinate system. Spatial data consists of location, shape and size in earth. A village boundary is represented as a polygon in map. The village is having certain shape of irregular polygon with definite area. As all these are mappable , they are called as spatial data. But name of the village, revenue of a village and description about a village and called as non-spatial or aspatial data.

Abstract

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) application in plant genetic resource management allow capture, manipulate, process and display of georeferenced data integrated with genetic resource database for operations such as query and statistical analysis, visualization and geographic representation. GIS based several spatial tools have been developed that model species’ ecological niches finding a relationship between crop or variety with a set of environmental parameters and useful for planning exploration, evaluation trials, in situ and ex situ conservation sites. GIS technologies have direct practical application in elucidation of genetic, ecological and geographic patterns in the distribution of crops and wild relatives; mapping of richness, diversity, distribution of useful traits and, location of areas with complementary diversity; gene bank information management and strategies for future explorations and gap analysis; selection of suitable accessions/sites for ex situ evaluation; searching germplasm for abiotic stress tolerance and developing core collections. With the increasing availability of high- speed computers and software development in the area of GIS tools specific to PGR management increasing trend in application of these is expected. Apart from ecogeographic survey for locating diversity and germplasm collection and design, management and monitoring of in situ reserves, introduction of new varieties, and development of core collection, locating gene donors for biotic and abiotic stresses are the areas to be benefited with the GIS application.

Keywords: GIS, genetic resource, distribution, diversity, core collection, gap analysis, mapping

Introduction

Rainfall is one of the climatic variables that varies very highly spatially and temporally. Understanding this micro-level variation is a crucial indicator for planning future water requirements and preparing for management strategies. Numerous researchers have delved into the distribution, variability, and trends of rainfall across diverse spatial scales, ranging from global to regional and basin levels. Nair et al. (2014) analyzed the rainfall trend and seasonality index for Kerala state in India over the last 100 years. The rainfall trend was found to be decreasing significantly in almost all the regions of the state. Nischitha et al. (2013) provide insights into the spatial and temporal variability of daily monsoon rainfall in the Tunga and Bhadra River basins in Karnataka state. Paradkar et al. (2019) evaluated the pattern of weekly rainfall by using statistical parameters such as mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis for five stations in Pratapgarh district.

Geographical Information System (GIS) proved to be an effective tool in handling information and analyzing rainfall patterns, providing visual representations, and facilitating the decision-making process (Kadir et al. (2016) and Rao et al. (2017)). Anand et al. (2020) analyzed the long-term spatial and temporal trends of rainfall in the Lower Bhavani basin in Tamil Nadu, India using GIS and statistical methods. Earls et al. (2007) compared different interpolation methods such as Inverse Distance Weighting, Spline, and Kriging (ordinary and universal) to generate a 30 m representation of the rainfall data. Spatial interpolation techniques perform differently and their evaluation should not rely solely on quantitative assessment. Wu & Hung (2016) compared the performance of three spatial interpolation techniques i.e., IDW, kriging, and spline using quantitative assessment, 2D visualization, and 3D visualization. IDW and kriging performed similarly in terms of quantitative assessment, while spline performed worse. IDW and spline performed similarly in 2D visualization, while kriging showed different behavior. Kriging was observed to be an inexact interpolation in 3D visualization, while spline tended to create extreme values along the edges of the study area. Some studies discovered that the accuracy of Kriging in the study area is higher than that of IDW or Thiessen interpolations (Earls et al. 2007; Song et al. 2008; Chen et al. 2010). GIS applications have the capability to integrate spatial data and non-spatial data like rainfall and to visualize, model, and analyze how rainfall distribution varies across space and over time, providing insights into climate change, water resource management, agricultural planning, and disaster management. The present study aims to analyze annual rainfall data pertaining to Kerala state in the GIS environment.

Introduction

A system is a simplified version of reality and is defined as a collection of interrelated parts that work together. Most systems share certain common characteristics. These common characteristics include the following:
Systems have a structure that is defined by its parts and processes. Systems are generalizations of reality.
Systems tend to function in the same way as nature. This involves inputs getting changed in a process and realization of new outputs.
The various parts of a system have functional as well as structural relationships between each other.
Owing to the functional relationships that exist between the parts there is a flow and transfer of some type of energy and/or matter. In case of information systems there is a flow of information in the structure.
The parts that make up a system show certain degree of integration. In other words the parts work well together.

Abstract

The rapid development and integration of spatial technologies viz., Geographical Information System (GIS), Remote Sensing (RS) along with Global Positioning Systems (GPS) provide functional alternatives to revolutionize the conventional entomological approaches like surveillance, spatial/temporal distribution of insect populations, pest distribution mapping and predictive modeling. Application of these technologies for insect problems is well established in the fields of forest, range land, medical and agricultural entomology elsewhere. Nevertheless, in India its field relevance in agricultural entomology is still limited owing to lack of proven field prototype studies and collaborative efforts among stakeholders. It’s time to gain real momentum to integrate these progressive technologies to formulate sustainable integrated pest management programs.

Key words: GIS, Remote Sensing, Insect Populations, Field Applications

This chapter introduces the integration of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing, and artificial intelligence (AI) for modern forest monitoring and management. It explains how remote sensing provides spatially continuous information, GIS functions as a spatial database and decision-support environment, and AI and machine learning enable prediction and pattern recognition. Applications include forest inventory, carbon estimation, biodiversity assessment, forest-fire detection, insect monitoring, and disturbance mapping. The chapter also examines GeoAI, smart forestry, emerging technologies, data challenges, and future opportunities such as cloud-based geospatial platforms and explainable AI.

impacts other speheres and that too on a distal place! This chapter explains how global warming affects remote places like highlands of Bhutan. Severe hot summers during the year 1994 led to excessive melting of glaciers in the higher Himalayas. The exceptional melting contributed enormous amount of melt water to the lake basins, which caused breach of the morainic dam and consequent enlargement of the outlet of the Luggye Tsho and the Tshopda Tsho, Bhutan. Floods followed the breach on October 7, 1994. These floods destabilized the slopes on either bank of the Pho Chhu near Tshopda Tsho outlet making them prone to landslides. The flash floods also eroded the left lateral moraine of the Raphstreng Tsho, which had disturbed the original angle of repose. The Raphstrcng area is also prone to ice avalanches, rock glaciers, surge of which can damage the rim and also cause spillover of water. Examination of geological, geomorphological, geotechnical, microclimatic and hydrographic information in and around the glacial lakes led to improved understanding of breach characteristics based on which mitigation measures were suggested and implemented in the years 1996-97. Since then the lakes have remained intact. From this case study and satisfactory performanceof mitigationmeasures suggest that similar integrated studies have to be conducted for thorough understanding of hazard prone areas based on which mitigation measures have to be implemented for successful reduction of impacts.

INTRODUCTION

The Lunana area, situated in the northern district of Gasa, is one of the most extensively glaciated terrains of Bhutan (Fig. 1). In response to the general global warming, these glaciers like those of other parts of the Himalaya are in a state of steady retreat, often leaving behind a chain of lakes. Though the glacial lakes endow scenic beauty, they also pose environmental hazards, due to frequent bursting of their morainic dams and consequent flash floods. The last lake-burst occurred on 7^th October 1994, leading to floods in the Pho Chhu River. Following floods, the Geological Survey of India in collaboration with the Royal Government of Bhutan, investigated the Lunana area to identify the causes and effects of the floods and suggest remedial measures. More than a decade had passed since the implementation of mitigation measures and there has been no such breach and flood despite continued Glacial Vetreat during to Global Warming. This chapter describes the characteristics of these glacial lakes, nature and results of the study and mitigation efforts.

Thrips : Taeniothrips simplex : Thripidae

Yellow coloured nymphs and black adults damage leaves and spikes by rasping tissues and sucking the sap.  Affected leaves and spikes develop silver streaks, turn brown, get deformed and dry when attack is severe.  Corms in storage are also attacked. Infested corms are sticky, get shriveled and produce weak plants.

Gladiolus is a flower of breathtaking beauty with a wide range of colours, size and form. Its magnificent inflorescence has won for it, a place of pride in gardens and value as a cut flower. Except true blue and green practically all colours are available in gladiolus. Flowers are long lasting and stand transport well. They are widely used in flower arrangements, bouquets and indoor decorations. It is estimated that gladiolus is grown throughout India over on area of 1270 ha (Arora et al. 2002).