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India is an agriculture based country which is one of the few developing countries in the world. It successfully achieved Green Revolution during the late 1960s (1967-68). At present, agriculture is a principal means of livelihood for over 58.4 per cent of Indiaís population directly or indirectly (Anonymous, 2011). It is worthwhile to mention that although agriculture continued to be the mainstay of the Indian economy previously (Anonymous, 2010b) yet now its share in the Indian economy is declining year after year (Anonymous 2013d). After Independence, agricultureís sector contribution to GDP swings between 50-60 per cent. Even in 1950-51, it was 55.1 per cent, but fell to mere 17-18 per cent in 2008-09 (Mahajan and Gupta, 2009).

Agricultural production has made rapid strides in the past four to five decades and has enabled India to achieve self-sufficiency in food grain production. This was only through ìGreen Revolutionî which ushered during 1967-68 onwards, when use of old agricultural practices were mostly done away with. Neglect of old or indigenous agricultural practices such as use of organic manures (farm yard manure - FYM, compost, green manure), cultural control methods like sanitation, tillage/removal of weeds, adjusting sowing/harvesting time crop rotation, trap crops, water and fertilizer management and host plant resistance, and use of plant based insecticides like neem or nim (Azadirachta indica), drek (Azadirachta indica), nirgudhi or bana (Vitex negundo) vis-a-vis biological control measures, has resulted in outbreak of ill-effects in human beings and animals through contaminated food stuffs (Gupta, 2006a).

In modern times, soil tillage has emerged as an integral part of a crop system. Soil tillage or soil surface management has been found important in alleviating soil related constraints encountered in crop production. An important effect of soil tillage on crop productivity is through its influence on soil processes, soil Soil Tillage 39 properties and crop growth. At the same time, soil tillage has its impact on the environment e.g. soil degradation, water quality, emission of green house gases from soil related processes etc.

Water is precious, but it is a finite natural resource. Although it accounts for about three-fourth of the earthís surface yet very small fraction of it i.e., only 2.7 per cent of the global water is available as fresh water. Around 2.8 billion people live in areas of high water scarcity (Anonymous, 2014d). Out of the total amount of the fresh available water merely 30 per cent is withdrawn to meet the water requirements of the human and livestock population while the remaining 70 per cent is required to produce food crops that fuel human activities.

Now-a-days, a watershed management or watershed development has been fully recognized as a unit for over all development of rainfed areas (Gupta, 2006a and b). Hydrological problems such as excessive runoff, large scale soil erosion, inadequate or faulty drainage and occurrence of droughts are the most significant problems in almost all the rainfed areas. These problems, however, can be alleviated through running watershed based development programmes that recognize the natural topography and water movement patterns of the land.

There is no doubt that after independence, particularly during 1966-68, the use of hybrid and composite seeds of various crops, chemical fertilizers and pesticides resulted in an increase in the Indian agricultural output leading to ìGreen Revolutionî. But quite soon, the deleterious effects of farming based on chemical Organic Farming for Sustainable Agriculture 105 methods came to fore.

Today a number of countries have moved away from the inorganic or chemicalised farming to organic farming yet it is not possible for India to depend entirely upon this system of farming due to increase in human population. As total availability of plant nutrients from different organic sources is projected to 7.75 MT by 2025 against the total requirement of 37.50 MT for 1504 million populations, so it means if we depend on organic sources there would be deficiency of about 30 million tonnes of nutrients.

Bio-fertilizers, as the name indicates, are the fertilizers of biological origin (Gupta, 2012). In strict sense, real bio-fertilizers are green manures and organics - materials of biological origin which are added to supply plant nutrients present in them. However, in restricted scope, the term ìbio-fertilizersî or ìmicrobial inoculantsî are preparations of living organisms in alone or in combination, which may help in increasing crop productivity by way of fixing atmospheric Use of Bio-Fertilizers in Sustainable Agriculture 175 nitrogen in soils, solubilizing of insoluble plant nutrients, stimulating plant growth or decomposing of plant residues. 

Ever increasing use of chemical fertilizers without an adequate organics has deteriorated the fertility and productivity of soil and also aggravated multi-nutrient deficiencies in soil and plant system (Gupta and Singh, 2006). Further, change in the cropping pattern, intensive cultivation and indiscriminate use of pesticides with an objective to obtain more and more crop yield, has not only made agriculture a profitable commercial venture but has also brought in several problems of pests and diseases, and ecological crises. As the nitrogenous fertilizers are soluble and as such they may leach down into ground water as for example presence of nitrate in underground waters of some parts of UP, Haryana, Punjab, Gujarat, has become a potent source of blue baby disease (Gupta, 2005).

The term pesticide includes fungicides, bactericides, nematicides, rodenticides, soil fumigants and herbicides. They cover a wide range of formulations: chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates, metallic salts, acetic acid derivatives, thiocarbamates etc. They all have deleterious effects on humans, domestic animals, wildlife and plants.

Agriculture is the main stay of Indian economy as more than 60 per cent of the people of India are dependent upon this evocation and allied disciplines for their livelihood. Even today, at the dawn of 21st century, the Indian agriculture has continued to be the backbone of our National economy, representing countryís about one seventh of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Thus, farming families consisting both of men and women, boys and girls, known as the pillars of our agriculture constitutes backbone of the Nation. The support and contributors made by the rural women in agriculture, consisting 50-60 per cent of farm work force are, however, not less than those performed by the men, and therefore they become spine of the rural economy.

In spite of the fact that the forests are the wealth of a nation and play a vital role in the economy of the country, not much attention has been paid to their promotion, protection and conservation. The forests of India have been reduced to 19.27 per cent (Gupta and Khajuria, 2000) and/or 23 per cent including 20.55 per cent forest cover and 2.48 tree cover (Sharma, 2005). It is much less than as prescribed in the National Forest Policy (1952), according to which onethird i.e. 33 per cent of the total land area of the country must be under forest.

The concept of indigenous knowledge or indigenous knowledge system (IKS) delineates a cognitive structure in which theories and perceptions of nature and culture are conceptualized. Thus, it includes definitions, classifications and concepts of the physical, natural, social land economic environments. The dynamics of IKS takes places on two different levels, the cognitive and empirical. On the empirical levels, IKS is visible in institutions, artifacts and technologies.

In whole of the world, about 6 to 7 m ha of agricultural land is becoming unproductive every year due to one or the other reasons (Gupta, 2018a). This is, however, more so in case of developing countries (Gupta, 2003). Productive lands are utmost important to meet the countryís growing needs for food, fodder, fuel wood, medicinal herbs and timber.

North Eastern Himalayan Region comprises mostly of seven states viz. Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura (Gill, 2005). This Himalayan Region stands entirely different from the rest of the country not only in language, dress, food habits and festivals but also differs in agricultural practices. Among agricultural practices shifting cultivation locally known as ìJhumî or ìBunî is the most important. According to Ministry of Agriculture, Arunachal Pradesh stands first in the ìJhumî cultivation followed by Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya (Agnihotri, 2003). In Meghalaya, the problem has assumed an epidemic proportion in Gargo hills where tracts of forests are burnt. The farmers of Khasi and Jainta Hills usually practise the ìBunî cultivation.

It is an established fact that there is no further scope for horizontal expansion of area under plough, as the per capita land is decreasing every year due to unabated increase in human population. Hence, the future need of food has to be met through vertical expansion i.e. more intensification of agriculture. Nearly 40 million tonnes of nutrients in the form of chemical fertilizers will have to be utilized to feed upon an estimated population of 1.5 billion by 2050 AD (Sakai, 2001). However, presently the crop productivity especially rice and wheat has stagnated not only in India but in other South Asian countries also (Mahajan and Gupta, 2009). 

Agriculture is the lifeline of India that provides livelihood to about 70 per cent of its population dwelling in about 6 lakh villages. In spite of so many projects, programmes and schemes launched from time to time after independence by Government of India through Ministry of Agriculture and Indian Council of Agricultural Research, State Agricultural Universities and Departments of Agriculture, agricultural food grains production was not realized on ìsustainable basisî. Even ìGreen Revolutionî which came to fore during 1967-68 in the irrigated areas alone, could not sustain the productivity of rice and wheat. Rather, the productivity of these crops has either got declined in many cases and/or in other cases it has stagnated.

Veterinary Clinical Medicine is a subset of Veterinary Medicine, and refers to study on animal diseases at the patient bed side for diagnosis, monitoring,
prognosis and treatment of the disease. The Veterinary Medicine is that branch of veterinary science that deals with diagnosis, treatment, prevention and control
of diseases, disorders and injury in domesticated, pet, wild, zoo, captive, freeliving animals and birds.

The deviation from normal health is defined as disease. Health refers to the very absence of the disease. Therefore, health is a state where all the body
systems function normally and the activities continue within the physiological limits. So, the disease can be defined as the inability to perform physiological
functions at normal levels even when nutrition and other environmental requirements are provided at adequate level.

The term “diagnosis” is derived from Greek words dia (between) and gignoskein (to know). It literally means to recognizing a disease and knowing
difference between the two diseases or conditions. Therefore, diagnosis includes – determination of specific cause, abnormality of structure and
function produced by the causative agents and clinical manifestations associated with the abnormality.

The general systemic states are generalized in nature and involve whole body systems. They are common to many diseases and contribute to the pathogenesis
of the disease. Pathogenesis is defined as the changes in functioning at the cellular level and establishment of disease process. Hyperthermia,
hypothermia, fever, toxaemia, septicaemia, bacteraemia, shock, dehydration, acid-base imbalance, hyponatremia, hypokalemia etc. are some examples of
general systemic states.

The two different compartments of the body fluids are extracellular fluid (ECF) and intracellular fluid (ICF) with variation in solute concentrations.
The extracellular fluid is the fluid in the cardiovascular system or in between the cells, called interstitial fluid.

The primary function of the digestive system include prehension of food material, its digestion, absorption, excretion of undigested material and
maintenance of internal environment. All the these functions are accomplished through the four major functions of the gastrointestinal system.

Liver is the largest exocrine gland located in right side of the abdominal cavity
obliquely from lumbocostal angle downward and forward to intercostal space,
about 3-4” (10 cm) above the abdominal floor.

The primary function of cardiovascular system is to maintain blood circulation so that normal exchange of fluid, electrolyte, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrient
and excretory and secretory end products can take place between tissue and blood. Failure of circulation to any degree interferes with the transport and
exchange mechanism.

The blood is considered as the connective tissue, and consists of fluid component called plasma, and cellular component. Cellular component
consists of erythrocytes, leikocytes and thrombocytes. Blood cells produced during different stages of life (prenatal and postnotal) differ in morphology
and function. The primitive erythrocytes (Red blood cell) are produced on yolk sac, and later from liver, spleen and bone marrow.

The functional efficiency of the respiratory system depends on the ability to oxygenate the blood and to remove CO2 as it passes in the respiratory
circulation resultant. Interference with this function can occur in a number of ways but the resultant defect in all cases is lack of adequate oxygen supply to
the tissues. The respiratory insufficiency like anoxia or hypoxia is responsible for most of the clinical signs of respiratory diseases leading to respiratory
failure and finally death.

Diseases of bladder and urethra are most commonly reported in farm animals than diseases of kidney. Knowledge of the physiology of the urinary secretion
and excretion is required to understand the urinary tract diseases. The functions of kidneys are to excrete the end products of tissue metabolism except CO2
and to maintain homeostasis with respect to fluid and solutes including acid base balance by selective excretion of these substances. The kidney maintains
homeostasis by varying volume of water and the concentration of solutes in the urine.

The lymphatic system is an extensive drainage system that returns water and proteins from various tissues back to the blood stream. The system consists of
a network of very fine vessels or tubes called lymphatics that drain lymph from all over the body, and lymphnodes. Lymphatics are found in every part of the
body except the central nervous system.

Emergency medicine deals with patients those are critically ill and requires immediate healthcare for survival. Every life threatening disease is presented
for emergency management and the clinician is required during emergenices to successfully manage these with strong working knowledge, quick assessment
and appropriate action.

Causes: Dietary causes like hypovitaminosis A, nutritional deficiency of vitamin B complex, linoleic acid. Iodine poisoning. Parasitic causes like flea, lice, mange infestation, ring worm.

The major functions of the musculoskeletal system to provide support to organs and help in physical activities including locomotion, prehension, and
mastication. The clinical manifestations of the diseases of muscles, bones and joints are much in common, and are generally characterized by lameness,
failure of support, in coordination of movement and deformity.

The role of nervous system in animal is the maintance of bodies, speical relation with the immediate environment. Such functions are acomplished by several
sections of the nervous systsm. The sensory motor system is responsible for maintaing normal posture and gait.

Metabolic diseases assume the greatest significance in dairy cows and buffaloes during transition period, and occur due to imbalance in input and
output of production. The main reasons of occurrence of metabolic diseases are an imbalance between the rate of ‘input’ of dietary nutrients and ‘output’
of production.

General evidence of deficiency include either nutrient deficiency in diet or abnormal absorption, utilization or requirement of nutrient under consideration.
Special evidence may be obtained by chemical or biochemical examination of diet.

The diseases that occur during the first one month of life are termed as diseases of neonates. During this period, the animal requires special attention to reduce
mortality rate. The clinical examinations that are applied to adult animals are being used for the examination of newborns.

Animals contract poisoning due to a variety of toxic chemicals (inorganic and farm chemicals), phytotoxins, mycotoxins, and zootoxins, which is often
fatal. Toxic chemicals and poisonous plants represent a tremendous economic impact. However, more often the poisoning episodes go undiagnosed. In
general, poisoning is suspected when number of previously healthy animals show same symptoms and severity of illness at the same time and the same
lesions at necropsy.

The whole plants or their parts have been used as source of medicine and health tonics both in medical and veterinary practice since time immemorial. Many of
the active ingredients in chemically manufactured drugs have been originally derived from plant components (e.g. pyrethroids). Despite availability of
the modern allopathic medicines, herbal medicines are still used on a very large scale. In the back drop of current global trade of herbal medicine and
intellectual property right (IPR) scenario, and to overcome side effects of ‘single golden molecular bullet’ drug technologies of twentieth century, there
is an upsurge of interest in traditional practices.

Over the last decade, area under horticultural crops grew by 2.60% per annum and production 4.8% per annum. During 2017-18 total 311.71 million tonnes horticultural crops were harvested from 25.43 million hectare area. India is 2nd largest producer of fruits in the world after China, with average productivity at 14.97 t/ha. Fruits alone were cultivated almost in 6.5 million hectare area and production of 97.38 million metric tons, (Anonymous, 2018).

Tree canopy management affects fruit yield and quality by affecting light interception. The canopy geometry should be managed in such a way that it intercepts maximum light. For high density planting system a shallow (thin) canopy 1.5-2.0 m in depth is needed to achieve the maximum efficiency for trapping sun energy through foliage and channelizing metabolites for quality fruit production with good return.

Canopy manipulation in fruit crops has a seasonal and a life-time development pattern and have lifelong advantage and disadvantage. The unmanaged canopy of fruit trees poses many difficulties i.e. difficulty in spray, pruning and hand harvesting, poor light penetration and interception throughout the canopy. Low early light interception, leaf area index and fraction of land covered by canopy, leading to delayed and poor cropping.

Mango (Mangifera indica) is one of the least professionally grown fruit crop globally. It is popularly known as ‘King of Fruits’ belongs to family Anacardiaceae. It is being cultivated for at least 4000 years (Crane, 2008). As per estimate total world mango production is 40 million tones.

Grape is one of the important fruit, crops being grown in area of 79.6 thousand hectare with annual production 1878.3 thousand MT. India is a major exporting country of grapes, it exported fresh grapes 24633.79 MT (2018-19) (Anonymous, 2018).

Banana and plantain (Musa spp.) are one of the most important commercial food crops especially in tropical regions. Banana by virtue of its multiple uses is popularly known as ‘Kalpataru’. Apart from fresh consumption as desert fruit, some types are also used for culinary purposes. It has therapeutic value; ripe banana is easily digestible and has vitamins and minerals.

The guava (Psidium guajava L.) also known as ‘the apple of tropics’ belongs to family Myrtaceae (Hayes, 1974) originated from Tropical South America stretching from Mexico to Peru and introduced in India by Portuguese during 17th century (Bose and Mitra, 2001). Guava is an evergreen fruit in nature, well adopted to a wide range of soil and agro-climates and acclaimed as ‘super fruit, due to high nutraceutical properties and in reach of poor people it has great demand.

India stands 3rd position in citrus production in world after China and Brazil. It is the most important fruit crops grown in India, however, our productivity is quite low 8.9 t/ha (Srivastava and Singh, 2006).

Apple (Malus domestica Borkh) is a typical temperate fruit; more than 80% world supply is being made from Europe (Tukey, 1982). It occupies more than 85% area and 60 % production of total temperate fruits. As per 2017-18 statistics it was cultivated over an area of 30,1000 ha with 23,27,000 metric tons production (Anonymous, 2018). Austria is leading in apple productivity; however, China is a largest producer in world.

The common pear (Pyrus communis) is known as French Pear, Asian pear also called Chinese pears, Japanese pears, Oriental pears, sand pear, salad pears and apple and pear are group of pome fruits derived from Pyrus ussuriensis and Pyrus serotina. Pyrus communis is susceptible to fireblight disease, however, Pyrus pyrifolia is resistant to this disease. Pear is only temperate fruit grown on the hills to southern parts of India. Jammu and Kashmir is leading in quality pear production.

Peach (Prunus persica L. Batsch) is a small to medium sized open topped branches, medium stocky, spreading as well as upright growth habit. The Peach is the native of (china, currently around 3000 peach cultivars are available in the world over (Faust and Timon, 1995).

It is an interesting and popular fruits of temperate climate. The branches are usually erect and leaves are large and thin, the flowers borne on one-yearold spur and shoots. The spur elongates in almost a straight line for several successive years because the terminal bud is leaf bud. Sweet cherry fruits are mostly consumed fresh and also used for processing purpose, syrup and some type of alcoholic drinks etc.