eChapters

Gravimetric analysis describes a set of methods in analytical chemistry for the quantitative determination of an analyte based on the mass of a solid. A simple example is the measurement of solids suspended in a water sample. A known volume of water is filtered, and the collected solids are weighed.
 
In gravimetry, the analyte needs to be first converted to a solid by precipitation with an appropriate reagent. The precipitate can then be collected by filtration, washed, dried to remove traces of moisture from the solution, and weighed. The amount of analyte in the original sample can then be calculated from the mass of the precipitate and its chemical composition.

In some cases, it is easier to remove the analyte by evaporation. The analyte might be collected—perhaps in a cryogenic trap or on some adsorbent material such as activated carbon—and measured directly. Or, the sample can be weighed before and after it is dried; the difference between the two masses gives the mass of analyte lost. This is especially useful in determining the water content of complex materials such as foodstuffs.

Titration, also known as titrimetry, is a common laboratory method of quantitative chemical analysis that is used to determine the unknown concentration of an identified analyte.  Since volume measurements play a key role in titration, it is also known as volumetric analysis. A reagent, called the titrant or titrator is prepared as a standard solution. A known concentration and volume of titrant reacts with a solution of analyte or titrand  to determine concentration. The volume of titrant reacted is called titre. Volumetric analysis originated in late 18^th-century in France.

DNA and RNA are the carriers of genetic information in all the living organisms. The study and analysis of the genetic code can provide information that can be used in clinical diagnostics, drug discovery, genetic engineering and forensic sciences. Hence there is need to understand the techniques in isolation of DNA and RNA followed by their amplification and sequencing.

Organic material especially, seeds, grains, leaves, fruits and nuts contain prominently three groups of compounds. They are carbohydrates, proteins and fats/oils, mostly in that order. They also contain 3-5% minerals and smaller quantities of vitamins and other minor constituents. Cereal grains contain more of carbohydrates while oilseeds and nuts contain more oil. Tree nuts and even oilseeds may contain 30-50% protein while cereal grains contain 5-8% protein only. The starch and sugar contents of oilseeds may be less than 10% while the oil content of cereal grains ranges around 5%. The actual content and the composition of these groups of compounds really account for their quality as well as commercial value.

Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on earth. They occur in nature as glucose, starch and cellulose etc. Each year, photosynthesis converts more than 100 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide and water into starch, cellulose and other plant products. Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones and their derivatives. They provide 4K calories of energy per gram. They promote utilization of lipids and reduce wastage of proteins. They are readily available in roots, tubers, cereal grains, sugarcane and sugar beet.

Lipids are a diverse group of chemical molecules. They are generally insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. Lipids include long-chain hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, fatty acids, and their derivatives, especially, glycerides, phospholipids, glycolipids and sulfolipids. Other compounds like sterols, fatty acid esters of sterols, vitamins A, D, E, and K, carotenoids, and other poly-isoprenoids also are part of the lipids. Oils and fats are mainly triglycerides and neutral molecules. Those in the liquid state at ambient temperatures are called oils while those in the solid state are called fats. Lipids and lipid components have varied uses in the food and non food sectors. Vegetable and animal matter contain a variety of these constituents in different proportions. It is neccessry to evaluate the composition and quality of these constituents from the point of view of their utility.

The word protein was first coined in 1838 to emphasize the importance of this class of molecules. The word is derived from the Greek word proteios which means “of the first - rank”. Proteins are polymers/macro molecules made up of several amino acids. When there are more than 50 amino acids in a chain, the polypeptide is normally called a protein. Each protein in the cells of living beings has a unique sequence of amino acids that determines its biological function. The proteins are folded into specific defined structures, which are maintained by large number of relatively weak bonds. The three dimensional structure is well defined and suited to it’s specific function.

Enzymes are organic catalysts produced by living organisms. They make possible biochemical reactions. Hence they are called biocatalysts. They are mostly a specialized class of proteins. However, there are some non-protein enzymes like ribozymes, which are RNAses. Enzymes speed up reactions at ambient temperatures. This is in contrast to chemical reactions like saponification of lipids which take place when lipids are boiled for a few hours with concentrated alkali. Enzymes, namely, lipases, hydrolyze lipids at body temperatures in minutes. They are superior to chemical catalysts by a factor of 10⁷ to 10¹⁴ . An enzyme may be a simple protein or a complex protein. They are produced by cells and are mostly globular proteins. Each cell contains an estimated 3000 different enzymes.

Nucleic acids were first discovered in 1868 by Friedrich Meischer. Nucleic acids are high molecular weight polymers that are present in our cells. They store and transfer genetic material from generation to generation. Knowledge of how genes are expressed and how they can be manipulated is becoming increasingly important for understanding of nearly every aspect of biochemistry. These macromolecules p ass on information for cellular growth and reproduction. All the genetic information in the cells is called the genome. Every time a cell divides, the information is copied and passed on to the new cells.

Vitamins are essential organic nutrients required by an organism in small quantities. They are essential since they cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, and must be obtained from the diet. The term vitamin does not include other essential nutrients like dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, or essential amino acids which are needed in larger quantities than vitamins. The term vitamin is derived from “vitamine,” coined in 1912 by the Polish biochemist Funk. The name is from vital and amine, meaning amine of life. Thirteen vitamins are generally recognized presently. Vitamins are used in small quantities by an organism to keep it in a healthy condition.

Phenol is normally a benzene ring containing an –OH group, and hence an aromatic alcohol. The term “phenolic” refers to similar aromatic compounds with one or more -OH groups. Phenolics constitute one of the most widespread classes of secondary metabolites. Commonly talked about class of compounds like anthocyanins, flavonoids, lignins, tannins, coumarins and chalcones are all phenolic substances. Phenolics are water insoluble substances. However, the water solubility increases with the increase in the number of -OH groups. Phenolics absorb electromagnetic radiation strongly. Many of the phenolics absorb in the visible part of the spectrum (Ex. anthocyanins) and are coloured. Phenolics are produced in plants by 1. Shikimate pathway through phenylalanine (C₆-C3) and 2. Acetate/malonate pathway.

Certain constituents associated with plants are toxic. When such items are consumed by men and animals, they become hazardous. Mold growth on food items may be the cause of toxicity. Some of them are called mycotoxins. Aflatoxins are the best examples of such a group of compounds. Sometimes processing also produces some toxins. Fumigants, smoke and some metals (mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic etc.) used for such purposes are some such toxic constituents. Pesticides used in protecting the crops and grains during storage remain on the items and the residues are hazardous.

Alkaloids are of plant origin and are alkaline in reaction. They contain N as part of a hetercyclic ring. They exhibit pharmacological activity. Presently more than 2000 alkaloids are known. They have a lot of uses in medicine and as  flavoring agents, psychoactive agents, pain killers and as pesticides.

Sixteen chemical elements are known to be important to a plant’s growth and survival. The sixteen chemical elements are divided into two main groups: non-mineral and mineral.  The Non-Mineral Nutrients are hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and carbon (C). These nutrients are found in the air and water.
  
In a process called photosynthesis, plants use energy from the sun to change carbon dioxide (CO₂ - carbon and oxygen) and water (H₂O- hydrogen and oxygen) into starches and sugars. These starches and sugars are the plant’s food. Since plants get carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen from the air and water, there is little the farmers and gardeners can do to control  how much of these nutrients a plant can use.

Plant pigments impart colour to the different components like leaves, flowers, fruits etc. They in turn are responsible for the colour of raw food, we eat. Pigments like chlorophyll, anthocyanins, flavonoids, tannins, xanthones etc. are the different pigments that are present in plants. The primary function of pigments in plants is photosynthesis, which uses the green pigment chlorophyll along with several red and yellow pigments that help to capture as much light energy as possible. Chlorophyll is green in colour. Carotenoids like a, b, and g, carotenoids are yellow in colour. Lycopene is red in colour. Flavones and falvonols are also yellow in colour. Anthocyanins are purple and magenta in colour. Other functions of pigments in plants include attracting insects to flowers to encourage pollination. The assay of pigments is mostly based on their native colour.

Chemicals in the form of insecticides ,fungicides and herbicides are extensively used in large numbers in agricultural production. Commercial production of some crops would be impossible if chemicals are not used. Small quantities of chemical residues often remain in such crops and the harvested grains and other products. The residues of pesticides  have been observed in small quantities (ppm level) in soil, water, agricultural produce  and even in animal tissues and their products like meat and  milk. They finally reach the consumer, namely, man (and even animals). Even the environment  is  now-a-days polluted with pesticides and other chemicals harmful to the humans. In view of the importance and seriousness of the problem the residues need to be estimated in the food and non-food products to assess their safety. Analytical details of a few pesticide residue procedures are presented below. Specialized texts may be consulted for  more extensive information.

As per the projection of International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, there is likelihood of shortfall of 41% in food production in India by 2020 and need to produce 300mt of food by 2020. India is the seventh largest country in the world with a population of more than 1.03 billion and with 1.93 population growth rate. To overcome such problems we have to go for horizontal or vertical increase in production. As the cultivable area and water resources are limited to bring under cropping, except by way of increasing the cropping intensity/cropping system, horizontal increase has little scope. While the vertical increase in production has tremendous scope with better value added varieties and farmer friendly sustainable management and production technologies.

Among angiosperms, there are about 18 families which have more than 30 genera which produce tubers. Most genera have many species which are tuberizing, most of which are unknown to man even now. The history, origin and distribution of only a few species which are economically important root and tuber crops and which are commonly used by men for edible as well as medicinal purpose are elucidated in this chapter.

1. Sweet Potato

Exact centre of origin of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), and the routes and times for its dispersal to some of its present locations, are still in dispute and are likely to remain so until further archaeological or ethnobotanical evidence is available (O’Brien, 1972).

Plant biodiversity, in particular, is arguably the single greatest resource that humankind has garnered from nature during our long cultural development. Nowhere is the value of biodiversity more evident than in our food supply. Roughly one third of all plant species have edible fruits, tubers, nuts, seeds, leaves, roots, or stems. The World Health Organization estimates that 3.5 billion people in developing countries rely on plant-based medicine for their primary health care, in which tuber crops also play a major role (Tuxill, 1999). There are 25 hot spots of biodiversity of which Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayan are the most important ones in India. About 7% of world flora and 6.5% of world fauna are in India. Indo-Burma region is one of the eight hottest hot spots of the world, and is the centre of origin of tuber crops like Dioscorea, Colocasia, Amorphophallus and Alocasia.

The dry matter production is maximum in cassava (3.0 m t ha^-1) and is followed by yams (2.4 m t ha^-1) and sweet potato (2.1 m t ha^-1) and are higher than rice, wheat, maize and banana (1.3 to 1.9 m t ha^-1). The energy production is maximum in yams (182 M J ha^-1 day^-1) and it is followed by sweet potato (152 M J ha^-1 day^-1) and cassava (121 M J ha^-1 day^-1) (Horton and Fano, 1985).

1. Sweet Potato

Both sweet potato roots and tops are nutritious foods which could be used to advantage in combating nutritional deficiencies in parts of the developing world if means could be found to overcome resistance to their increased consumption. The roots are used primarly as human food and are eaten boiled, steamed, fried or baked. They are not only a moderately good energy source, but also contain significant quantities of the water-soluble vitamins viz., ascorbic acid and thiamin, besides supplying part of the daily requirement for riboflavin and niacin. Their contents of pyridoxine, folic acid and pantothenic acid may be relatively high. Raw leaves and tender tips are also excellent sources of ascorbic acid and some of the B-vitamins, especially riboflavin which is deficient in many Asian diets. However, high percentages of water-soluble vitamins are lost on cooking (Woolfe, 1992).

A broad class of polypeptides and proteins occur in plants and other life forms, which inhibit the action of proteolytic enzymes and are known therefore as proteinase inhibitors and this includes those which specifically inhibit the important digestive enzyme trypsin. Others inhibit a related enzyme chymotrypsin. The subject of proteinase inhibitors was reviewed by Ryan (1981). The occurrence of these inhibitors has nutritional implications for human and animal feeding as they are found in many important food plants eaten both raw and cooked. The first known plant proteinase inhibitor was the trypsin inhibitor crystallized from soybeans (Kunitz, 1945). Other proteinase inhibitors have since been described in a variety of plants, especially the Graminae, Leguminosae and Solanaceae families. The exact physiological function of proteinase inhibitors in plants is thought to be in plant protection by inhibiting digestive enzymes of invading insect pests or pathogens (Ryan, 1981).

In enhancing  the food production there appears to be two solutions, viz., horizontal or vertical increase in production.  In the vertical expansion of production varieties are important. High yielding, high starch and value added varieties suitable to each region/ cropping system play vital role in enhancing vertical production.  Therefore varieties especially value added consumer preferred ecologically adaptable ones hold the key and is very much true in tuber and root crops which have a significant role in supplementing the food and nutritional requirement in rural and semi urban population of India.

Application of manures and adoption of proper cultivation practices have profound influence in yield and quality of tubers. There crops also need macro nutrients (N,P,K which are primary nutrients and Ca, Mg and S which are secondary nutrients) and micro nutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, B) for their maximum yield potenial.

the package of practices vary with crop and again with soil, climate, edaphic and topographic factors, especially with reference to tropical tuber and root crops. The yield can be maximized through good agronomical practice and by adoption of proven recommended production technologies. Soils, climate, topographic and edaphic factors suitable for each crop alongwith salient cultivation practices and production technologies are enunciated for important tuber and root crops in various parts of India.

Tropical tuber and root crops are subjected to the depredation of a number of insect and non insect pests. Comprehensive studies revealed that cassava is attacked by a wide range of arthropod and rodent pests. An exhaustive global account of cassava pests and their management was given by Anon (1978), Bellotti and Schoonhoven (1978) and Bellotti et al. (1999). Lal and Pillai (1982); Pillai and Palaniswami (1984), Pillai (1994) and Palaniswami (1999) reviewed the pests of cassava in India. Anon (1978), Sutherland (1986) and Jansson and Raman (1991) covered world sweet potato pests. Palaniswami (1999) detailed the pests attacking sweet potato in India. Pests of edible aroids, yams and chinese potato were comprehensively reported by Anon (1978); Mitchell and Maddison (1983) and Palaniswami (1994, 1999). In India about 34 species of insects and non-insect pests infest cassava, 80 species attack sweet potato, 46 species on edible aroids, 21 on yams and 10 on chinese potato. One of the main factors for the low productivity of these crops in India is attributed to the pest complex attacking them (Chadha, 2001).

The major tuber crops cultivated in tropical countries are: cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.), yams (Dioscorea sp.), aroids (Amorphophallus, Alocasia, Xanthosoma, Colocasia ), Canna edulis, arrowroot, Chinese potato, winged bean and yam bean. In addition to this, there are a number of under exploited and under utilized tuber crops grown as wild cultivars having medicinal and pharmaceutical applications. Processing and utilization of tuber crops as food are traditional with both primitive as well as modern equipments being in use (Nanda and Kurup, 1994). One of the oldest traditional processing tools is a stone pounder for making poi from taro in Hawaii.

The North Eastern region stretches from 21°25' to 29° 28' N and 80° 4' to 97°25' E and covers a total geographical area of 2.55 lakh square kilometer sharing about 8 percent of the country’s geographical area. The NE states, otherwise known as eight jewels, which are Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim. This region is characterized by inaccessibility, marginality, fragility, cultural heterogeneity, ethnicity, rich bio-diversity, low livestock and crop productivity. These states are the reservoirs for genetic diversity of tuber crops like Colocasia, Xanthosoma, Alocasia, elephant foot yam, Dioscorea and other minor tuber crops. The annual precipitation in the region is about 2450mm and maximum rainfall is received from South West monsoon.

1. Tuber crops Starches

Tropical root and tuber crops are rich sources of starch (Ghosh et al., 1988; Chadha and Nair, 1994; Moorthy, 1994) besides many vitamins, minerals etc (Table 1). In addition to food applications, they have important industrial uses; especially, cassava in view of the considerable starch content. Cereals form the major source of commercial starches in most developed countries, but cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) and to a lesser extent, sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas Lam.) tubers are used for starch extraction in India, Brazil, Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines and China.

Tuber crops are rated as one of the richest sources of energy, besides being a treasure house of vitamins and minerals. The highest rate of dry matter production per day per unit area makes tuber crops important in the food economy, especially in meeting rural feed security. The tuber crop produce can also be processed into various food products to suit the taste and need of the urban, semi-urban and rural folk as well. Better post harvest management and diversification for production of value added products is one of the dependable methods to make tuber crops lucrative to both farmers and entrepreneurs.

Tuber crops grown in India include Cassava, Sweet potato, Dioscorea, Colocasia, Amorphophallus and minor tuber crops like Chinese potato, Arrowroot, Canna, Yam bean etc. Biotechnology can contribute solution to the major problems and realize greater benefits for tuber crops. Traditional breeding in tuber crops is difficult due to their heterozygous nature, low fertility, out crossing coupled with strong inbreeding depression. Many of the agronomic traits are polygenic and/or recessive which make breeding for such characteristics complicated. Biotechnology is a powerful tool to complement traditional breeding. Developments in the field of tuber crops biotechnology are discussed below.

Tropical root and tuber crops are important staples for food security for about a fifth of the world population. Tropical root and tuber crops like cassava, sweet potato, yams and aroids [taro and elephant foot yam] come under tropical root and tuber crops. Sweet potato, yams and colocasia are processed mainly as fresh vegetable, whereas 75% of the cassava in Africa, 75-80% in Asia and 65% in Latin America are processed either as fermented foods and feeds or as food additives such as starch, starch based sweeteners (glucose and fructose syrups), organic acids (acetic, lactic, glutamic and gluconic), mono-sodium glutamate and microbial polysaccharides (xanthan, pullulan, scleroglucan, etc).

After attaining a rich experience over a period of time, our forefathers have developed very pertinent primitive knowledge in a wide variety of fields (Rohilla et al., 1999). These location specific wisdom are known as indigenous traditional knowleges (ITKs). Indigenous traditional knowledge are the upshots of the pragmatic approach by our sons of the soil. As such, there are many ITKs emerged due to the incremental and cumulative learning among societies living in close connection with nature. The traditional communities are often called as indigenous or local or ethinic people. They have accumulated lots of empirical knowledge gained from the day-to-day life. The variations in availability of raw materials and environmental conditions clubbed with time tested traditional knowledge and wisdom, have made people of different regions of the North Eastern hill states to formulate, develop and perpetuate consumption of a wide range of traditional foods and beverages unique to its places since ages (Savitri and Bhalla, 2007).

In tropics, many crops are grown for their edible roots or tubers. Broad group of “tuber crops” encompasses a wide range of starchy food crops, some of which are true botanical roots and some others are stem tubers or corms. In global scenario, they are in a neglected state mainly due to their negative image as poor people’s food. They are highly perishable and are normally consumed locally in fresh or home processed state. It is time to bring out the positive attributes of these important foods and the increased contribution they can make to the nutritional welfare, food security and economic wellbeing of people, especially in developing countries.

The world’s population is increasing exponentially. Projected totals for the year 2050 vary but it is acknowledged that access to sufficient quality and quantity of food, water and living space and other natural resources will be limiting factors for the human population. The environmental impact of this huge population and its everyday activities will be significant and possibly irreversible. There is urgency therefore, in addressing issues of sustainable food production, water and land use for the coming decades. Endemic hunger (due to carbohydrate-protein malnutrition), hidden hunger (induced by deficiencies of vitamins and minerals) and transient hunger (caused by natural calamities such as drought, flood, earthquake, tsunami etc.) can be overcome only by integrated strategy with sustainable and equitable use of agricultural biodiversity.

Floriculture  is  increasingly  regarded  as  a  viable  diversification  from traditional field crops due to increased per unit returns and increasing habit of “saying it with flowers” during all the occasions. All over the world, the floricultural sector is experiencing rapid changes. Opening up to the world, market  in  the  WTO  regime  paving  way  to  free  movement  of  floricultural products worldwide, globalization and its effect on income generation have all  contributed  to  increase  in  per  capita  consumption  of  flowers  in  most countries. Noticeable  feature  of  global  floriculture  is  the  development  and expansion of floriculture in non-traditional areas. Netherlands, Italy, Germany and  Japan  had  strong  tradition  for  growing  and  consumption  of  flowers. The  concept  of  commercial  floriculture  was perpetuated  across  the  world from those regions. New production centres are developing in Latin America, Africa and also in Asia to meet the demand of consuming countries and also to  expand  domestic  market,  commensuration  with  improved  economic conditions  these countries  provide  highly  qualitative  floricultural  products with low cost price which is finding a favourable place in markets of Western Europe, America and Japan. Emergence of new production centres has made floriculture  more  competitive  and  this  in  turn  is benefiting the  ultimate consumers.

Indian floriculture industry is shifting from traditional flowers to cut flowers for export purpose. The liberalized economy has given an impetus to Indian entrepreneurs for establishing export oriented units (EOUs) under controlled climatic conditions.

The wide variation in the agro climatic conditions in India permit us to grow various types of tropical and subtropical plants and flowers. Though such plants grow successfully without cover, they fail to meet the export requirements of being seldom blemish free. High quality ornamental plants meant for export should be scientifically grown only in plastic, glass or fiberglass greenhouses, or at least under partial cover. Though initial investment is high in protected cultivation, the products in them will obtain far more attractive prices.

Seed is a vital input for successful flower production and it is considered as the starting material for most bedding plants and many of the cut flowers produced. The production of bedding plants and cut flowers is both capital and labour intensive. In order to optimize production efficiency and maximize profit, it is important for growers to use high quality seeds. Production of seeds of annual flowers has immense scope as an area of diversification in floribusiness. The flower seed industry is international, operating in many countries of the world. Large quantities of flower seeds are required both by developed and developing countries for adding to the beauty of private and large gardens and also for cut flower production. Worldwide, nurseries engaged in production of seeds of seasonal flowers have a booming business. The great diversity of flower seed crops is a fascinating facet of the world seed industry and they are of high value and low volume in contrast to the high volume and low value seeds of cereal seed crops.

Orchids belong to family Orchidaceae, which is the most highly evolved among monocotyledons with over 800 genera and 35,000 species and over 74,400 natural and manmade registered hybrids. Orchid is the first horticultural plant cloned by tissue culture methods on a commercial scale (Goh, 1990). Rapid multiplication using tissue culture techniques is an important strategy for preserving the valuable orchid wealth in India. Vegetative propagation through division of rhizomes and separation of offshoots and keikis is very slow. Both these problems can now be successfully alleviated through micropropagation. The technique has revolutionized the orchid industry and now it is possible to multiply unlimited number of desirable clones. Rotor (1949) was the first to have employed tissue culture techniques to multiply Phalaenopsis, and since then micropropagation potential of a variety of monopodial taxa has been successfully tested.

A ‘flower’ is an intricate organ composed of different morphological units including sepals, petals, androecium, gynoecium, stem and leaves. These units differ functionally with each other which ultimately decide the longevity of flowers. A cut flower may be defined as flower or an inflorescence containing more than one floral unit in the opened or unopened state which is harvested and marketed for ornamental purposes. Cut flowers in general are highly perishable commodities and highly vulnerable to huge post harvest losses. Once severed from the plant, they are deprived of their natural sources of water and nutrients and they wilt rapidly. It is claimed that 70% of the potential lasting quality of cut flowers is pre-determined at harvest. While post harvest factors influence 30% of the effects nearly 20-80% of the cut flowers are lost due to improper post harvest handling (Salunkhe et al., 1990).

Dry flowers are naturals, dried and preserved with an everlasting value the can be cherished for longer period. According to APEDA investigations, dried flowers accounted for 15% in the total floriculture export during 1988-89 and increased to 64% in 1994-95. Export value of dried plants and planting materials increased from Rs. 109.21 million in 1993-94 to Rs. 364.55 million in 1995-96.
 
India exports dry flowers to U.K., Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, U.S.A., Japan and Singapore. Dry flower production is labour intensive, provides self-employment and job opportunities for a large number of workers and aids in development of subsidiary industries. The industry has many advantages.

Bonsai culture is an important branch of Ornamental horticulture. History of Bonsai is very old dating back to many centuries in China where it originated, as most Chinese arts and from there it spread to Japan and became highly specialized.  In fact, bonsai culture is in the present day more known as Japanese than as a Chinese art.  In Japanese homes, there are plants which are hundreds of years old. This treasured art is passed from generation to generation in Japanese society.

The word Bonsai is a combination of two Japanese words, Bon (meaning shallow pan) and Sai (meaning plant) which can be interpreted as ‘Tray planting’.  The idea conveyed is that of a small beautiful tree growing in a container as in nature with all its parts performing their natural functions throughout the times.  The artistic look of plant in a miniature form maintained for many years is the prime criteria.  Bonsais are grown outdoors and are displayed in living room, as and when, needed.  They cannot be treated as house plants.

Anthuriums are tropical flowering plants with attractive foliage. These flowers are bewitchingly beautiful with attractive form and long lasting characters making it a favourite choice for flower arrangement and for bouquet making.  Anthurium is a large neotropical genus of 600-800 species belonging to family Araceae. Two flowering species in this genus Anthurium andreanum and Anthurium scherzerianum are extremely fascinating and commercially important.  The flowers of anthurium are popular with flower arrangers because of their bold effect and lasting qualities (Bhatt and Desai, 1989 and Singh, 1995). Together with some of its many hybrids, A. andreanum today forms the basis of a substantial cut flower industry chiefly in Hawaii, where much research is done in its hybridization and cut flower.

Carnation is one of the important cut flower crops grown throughout the world and occupies prime position because of the attractive colour, shape and good vase life. Due to the excellent keeping quality, wide range of forms, ability to withstand long distant transportation and remarkable ability to rehydrate after continuous shipping, carnation is preferred by growers to roses and chrysanthemums in several flower exporting countries.

Although cut carnations are sold in western countries all the year round, they are in particular demand for the Valentines Day, Easter, Mothers Day and Christmas. While standard carnations are in great demand, the miniature types are fast gaining popularity for their potential role in floral arrangement and also as cut flower at comparatively low price. White and pink standard carnations are in the greatest demand followed by red, yellow and bicolour. The liking for a colour depends upon the time or season. The re standard types are preferred to other colours, especially during the Christmas. In contrast in miniatures, the terminal flower bud is pinched to encourage clusters of short-stemmed small flowers. These types are mainly used for flower arrangement. (Bhatt, 1989)

China aster (Callistephus chinensis) belonging to family Asteracea is a native of China. It is a half hardy annual, erect plant, hispid hairy branches bearing alternate, broadly ovate or triangular ovate, deeply and irregularly toothed leaves. Flowers are solitary, usually blue, lavender rose or white coloured. China aster is one of the most important among garden annuals grown throughout the world. Among annual flowers China aster ranks third next to chrysanthemum and marigold. It is grown by small and marginal farmers in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Maharashtra. Due to its long vase life, China aster is a popular cut flower used in vases and for floral decoration and also for making garlands and venis in Karnataka. Asters are popular as bedding plants and used to fill gap in mixed herbaceous borders. Dwarf cultivars are also suitable for edging and window boxes.

Chrysanthemum (chrysos =golden; anthos = flower) is a popular flower crop of commercial importance known as the “Queen of the East”. It ranks next only to rose among flower crops in the world.

Gerbera, commonly known as Transvaal Daisy, Barberton Daisy or African Daisy, is cultivated throughout the world under a wide range of climatic conditions for its attractive flowers. It is highly suitable for beds, borders, pots and rock gardens. The wide range of colour and the attractive shape of flowers suit very well in flower arrangements. The cut blooms have long vase life. Today Gerbera is known as an important commercial flower crop and belongs to the most important plant species in the world, together with the rose, chrysanthemum, carnation and tulip. Gerbera is amongst the ten most important commercially grown flower crops in the world.

Gladiolus is a flower of breathtaking beauty with a wide range of colours, size and form. Its magnificent inflorescence has won for it, a place of pride in gardens and value as a cut flower. Except true blue and green practically all colours are available in gladiolus. Flowers are long lasting and stand transport well. They are widely used in flower arrangements, bouquets and indoor decorations. It is estimated that gladiolus is grown throughout India over on area of 1270 ha (Arora et al. 2002).

Heliconias are tropical plants of princely dimensions grown for their attractive foliage and brilliant flower spikes. They are some of the most unusual flora of the tropics. Strikingly elegant flower heads rise from banana like clumps of oval leaves, which are sometimes rather slender and, with a few varieties, extremely large. They are found naturally in the tropical forests world wide and in moderate climates. A popular landscape plant and cut flower in tropical and subtropical areas of the world, heliconias are native to Central and South America, the Caribbean Islands and some of the islands of the South Pacific. Their easy cultivation and spectacular presence have made them favourite garden subjects throughout the world. Heliconias have several common names including lobster’s claw’s, ‘parrot’s flower’, ‘parrot plantain’ and false plantain. Depending on variety, heliconias will range in height from 60 to 700 cm, often with extensive rhizomatous growth. The flower or inflorescence of heliconia is nearly always terminal and may last from several days to several months. They are particularly desirable as cut flowers because of their long lasting characteristics. 

Jasmine (Jasminum spp) is one of the oldest fragrant flowers cultivated by man. They are the most common flowers in India gardens.

Importance and Uses

They are traditionally important flowers not only as fresh flowers but also as source of high grade perfume oil. Mention of jasmine is there in ancient Indian literature like Kamasutra (AD 300-400) and Mahabharatha (500 BC). The odour of jasmine flowers cannot be imitated by any known synthetic chemical or natural isolates, thus giving it a unique status in the perfume world.

Marigold is one of the easiest annual flowers to cultivate, having wide adaptability. Flowers are attractive, have good keeping quality with a wide spectrum of colour, shape and size. They produce marketable flowers in a short time and are used widely for religious and social functions as well as for garden display. 

Importance and Uses

 Marigolds are sold as loose flowers, as cut flowers and widely used for various decorations and garland making. They are also excellent landscape plants widely used for bedding purpose, in herbaceous borders and can also be grown in pots. French marigolds, being dwarf, are suitable for hanging baskets, rockeries, edging and window boxes. In fact, marigolds rank next only to jasmine in popularity in South India 

Orchids are the royalty among flower crops. They exhibit an incredible range of diversity in size, shape and colour of flower. They are valued as cut flowers and potted plants and are the most pampered plants. Orchid flowers are famous for the long lasting characteristics and bewitching beauty. No other plant has probably acquired the status of orchids. They have always been considered as mysterious plants.