eChapters

To address the present day problems in agriculture and horticultural sectors and also to equip the graduating and postgraduate agricultural students, the ICAR has been continuously striving to bring necessary reforms for quality enhancement in agricultural education. The Council has appointed National Core Group and BSMA Committee for revision and restructuring of Post graduate and Doctoral syllabi in consultation with all the stakeholders to meet the challenges and harness opportunities in various disciplines of agriculture and allied sciences. It has been felt that a paradigm shift is necessary in academic regulations to comply with various provisions of National Education Policy-2020. The syllabus of Masters’ and Doctoral programs was restructured and new courses were introduced.

Group dynamics and formation represent fundamental processes in community mobilization that determine how individuals come together to form collective entities capable of achieving shared goals while building social capital and institutional capacity that can sustain long-term community development efforts. Understanding these processes provides essential insights into how communities can organize themselves effectively while creating groups that can navigate complex challenges and maintain cohesion through the inevitable difficulties and conflicts that arise during collective action initiatives. The science of group dynamics encompasses the complex social, psychological, and organizational factors that influence how groups form, develop, function, and achieve their objectives while building understanding of the internal processes that enable or constrain group effectiveness and sustainability. This knowledge has evolved through decades of research in social psychology, organizational behavior, and community

Group contact method in communication involves engaging with multiple individuals simultaneously to convey information, facilitate discussions, or stimulate collective action. It encompasses various techniques such as group meetings, result demonstrations, method demonstrations, and study tours, among others. The primary aim of group contact methods is to leverage the power of collective engagement to disseminate knowledge, foster collaboration, and promote the adoption of desired behaviors or practices within communities. These methods enable extension workers to reach larger audiences efficiently, promote peer learning, and create supportive environments conducive to positive behavioral change.

Result Demonstration

Result Demonstration involves showcasing the superior outcomes of a new agricultural practice to motivate its adoption within a community. It serves as an effective means of technology transfer, inspiring farmers to experiment with innovations themselves.

Objectives include illustrating the practical advantages of newly recommended practices, motivating community groups to adopt them, bolstering confidence among farmers and extension agents, and fostering innovation leadership.

Techniques

Planning and Preparation • Analyze the local farming context. • Select cooperative farmers with adequate resources and community acceptance. • Choose representative demonstration sites. • Establish a clear schedule of operations.

Fungicide which is effective only if applied prior to fungal infection is called a protectant, eg. Zineb, Sulphur. Protectant fungicides are prophylactic in their behaviour.

Place of Microorganisms in Living World

Haeckel’s kingdom Protista

E.H. Haeckel, 1866 proposed this concept. Apart from plant and animal kingdom, the third kingdom “Protista” was developed by him. The protista includes unicellular organisms that are typically neither plant nor animal. These organisms, the protists, include bacteria, algae, fungi and protozoa. Bacteria are referred as lower protists and others are called as higher protists.

Whittaker’s five kingdom concept

R.H.Whittaker (1969) proposed the concept of five kingdom. He divided the living things in to 5 kingdoms.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is the official measure for controlling the genetic purity of the seed lot.
2. _____ serves as ‘pre-control’ as well as ‘post-control’ for avoiding genetic contaminations.
3. _____ can also be used as a measure to judge the efficacy of the certification agency or the inspector.
4. The minimum population requirement for taking the observations shall be _____ plants.

Genetic purity (GP) is a crucial seed quality factor. Several steps and precautions are involved in achieving the desired levels of genetic purity in the seed. Right from the choice of genetically pure seed for seed production up to final packing of the seed produced, at any stage, genetic purity can get affected. Field inspection and postharvest checks help in verifying conformity to seed quality standards especially genetic purity. Wherever seed characteristics are clear, examination of samples in the quality assurance laboratory for other distinguishable varieties (ODV) gives an idea of the genetic purity status. Among the several methods available for GP assessment, Grow Out Test is one.

In this context, some basic principles and procedures and guidelines relating to GOT are presented with more of information in tabular forms. In brief, the aspects covered include objectives, principles, kinds of GOT, genetic purity standards, procedure, main factors for observations, evaluation, and recording and reporting. Table 4.1 gives the submitted sample size for GOT; and Table 4.2 shows the minimum number of days required for evaluation from sowing and Table 4.3 deals with maximum weight of submitted sample and minimum weight of working sample for GPM, GOT and ODV.

The farming of striped murrel is quite old in many south-eastern and south Asian countries including India under traditional farming system. Wee (1981) has given an account of traditional farming of striped murrel in Thailand, where seed of wild stock was stocked in very high density (75-460 numbers/m²) in ponds. Freshwater small fish (FSF) were fed to the seed during pre-monsoon and monsoon seasons and subsequently marine small fish (MSF) mixed with rice bran to satiation level. The fish grew to 700-1000 g in 7-10 months with an FCR of 6.5:1 and production of 9.0-15.6 kg/m². In another culture trial, Diana et al. (1985) have described a poor survival of 9-13%, when they stocked seed @ 40-80 number/m² collected from wild sources and fed them on FSF for 9-11 months. There are records of backyard production of this species also (Wan et al., 1992). The major problems with traditional farming were poor & uncertain survivals, problems of getting SFs and occurrence of diseases due to poor management protocols.

Therefore for a scientific farming of this species, the major bottlenecks are the non- availability of hatchery seed, species & size specific feed, cannibalism at all stages and disease occurrence. These bottlenecks have been addressed to a greater extent by the researchers in recent and protocols for hatchery seed production and cannibalism reduction have been simplified to a greater extent with the availability of commercial pellet diets to boost its farming. Vietnam has been pioneer in the production of farmed striped murrel in recent, following new initiatives and based on its success, neighbouring countries such as Indonesia, Camobodia, Thailand, Myanmar, etc have also taken initiatives to boost production of this high value species in their countries.

1. FIELD OF APPLICABILITY

Grow-out test is the official measure for controlling the genetic purity of the seed lot. It serves as ‘pre-control’ as well as a ‘post control’ test for avoiding genetic contaminations. According to the official regulations in India, it is prerequisite for seed certification of hybrids of certain species such as cotton, castor, musk melon and brinjal.

The test is conducted for checking the sellers label with respect to genetic purity status of the seed lot under the provisions of the Seeds Act 1966. In addition, grow-out test can also be used as a measure to judge the efficacy of the certification agency or the inspector.

This chapter introduces environmental management and automation in greenhouse production. It explains how temperature, light, humidity, carbon dioxide and root-zone conditions influence plant growth and flower quality. The chapter discusses ventilation, evaporative cooling, supplemental lighting, sensors, automation systems, solar greenhouses and retractable greenhouses. It also introduces government support and guidelines for protected cultivation, including MIDH assistance. The chapter emphasizes precision environmental control, resource-use efficiency and technology-enabled production.

Soil is the main growing medium. Natural as well as synthetic substitutes to soils are cropping up. Under greenhouse cultivation growing medium is generally top soil as used in open field/traditional farming. The practices of soil preparation for planting crops are more or less same as under open field. Generally, crops are planted on raise beds. As under open conventional farming soil preparation are made as per the crops or their varieties/hybrids to be grown. To enrich the soil with nutrients soil is tested for its physical and chemical properties and amended accordingly keeping in view the crop requirement. The soil composition is checked with each crop cycle and amended as per requirement of next crop. To avoid the harmful microbes and insects build up in the soil it is advisable to solarize or fumigate the greenhouse soil each year during hottest month of the year. Soil solarisation is an environment friendly soil pathogen management method and practiced widely in north India.

Soil Solarisation

Soil solarisation is an environment friendly method of using solar thermal power for controlling pests such as soil borne plant pathogens including fungi, bacteria, nematodes, and insect and mite pests along with weed seeds and seedlings in the moist soil by mulching the soil usually with a transparent polyethylene cover, to trap solar energy in greenhouses. It may also be described as a method of decontaminating soil or soil disinfestation using sunlight or solar thermal power. This energy/temperature causes desirable physical, chemical, and biological changes in the soil.

Abstract

Himachal Pradesh is endowed with varied type of climate providing conditions to grow temperate and sub  tropical fruits. Persimmon (Diospyros kaki) appears to be readily adapted to wide range of climatic conditions and offer a good potential for diversification of fruit culture. Though it was introduced in Himachal Pradesh in early nineties by the European missionaries but it could not be established as commercial fruit crop. Persimmon cultivation suffers from lack of organized plantings, inadequate vegetatively propagated plant material, non-availability of suitable cultivars and standardization of various orchard management practices. Besides, problems of poor fruit set, heavy fruit drop, astringent nature and lack of sufficient knowledge regarding fruit maturity and marketing mired its cultivation. The efforts made in recent years to overcome the problems the fruit seems to be on the thresh hold of popularity and with diversification in the fruit culture this fruit has great future.

Object: Growth analysis: Calculation of growth parameters. 

Material required: Primary data collected from individual plants or derived from whole canopies. 

Theory: The growth analysis study provides information on the growth of plants or of a plant community in a precise way with the available’ raw data. The study also provides precise information on the nature of plant and environment interaction in a particular habitat.

Growth represents overall performance of a plant under a particular environment. Generally, we restrict to the above ground plant parts for growth studies, however, a better understanding of plant growth and development would be achieved if total dry matter (including above ground shoot as well as underground root) were taken into consideration.

The basic principles behind growth analysis constitutes (i) data on plant height and (ii) leaf area. The quantitative analysis of growth is based upon several terms, which are described below (Hunt, 1978).

1. Growth

Growth is an irreversible increase in size which may or may not be accompanied by an increase in dry weight. It is the sum total of all the metabolic activities and normally results from the excess of anabolism over catabolism. In general, it refers to quantitative changes in the life cycle of plants. However, there are a few examples where growth is not accompanied by an increase in dry weight such as (i) germinating seeds and, (ii) etiolated plants.

Growth and Development are the most fundamental and conspicuous characteristics of all living organisms. According to dictionary, growth is the advancement towards maturity and development is a gradual increase in size. The plant physiological definition of growth is ‘an irreversible increase in mass, weight or volume of a living organism, organ or cell.

Abstract

A pot experiment was conducted to evaluate the genotypic variability with respect to agronomic and physiological traits of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea L. Verdc.) landraces collected from three contrasting environments during 2010-11 in a randomized complete block design with nine replications under transparent shade house at the University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus in Semenyih, Selangor.

Growth is defined as an irreversible change in the size of a cell, organ or whole organism. Commonly, growth is the increase in the amount of living material (protoplasm) which leads to an increase in cell size and ultimately cell division. Growth occurs only in living cells by metabolic process involved in the synthesis of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and CHO at the expense of metabolic energy provided by photosynthesis and respiration.

Plant growth is defined as the progressive development which is irreversible. It is expressed in terms of dry weight plants, height of plants, girth or diameter of the stem or tree trunks, spread of the tree canopy, number of branches or tillers. Plant growth is a function or various factors which may be expressed as G = f (x, x₂, x₃ x_n ).Some factors may be controlled while some cannot be controlled. The following are the factors which influence the plant growth.

Growth is the fundamental property of all living organisms. It is an irreversible permanent increase in size, volume or mass of a cell or organ or whole organism accompanied by an increase in dry weight. Where, development is sum total of growth and differentiation. It is governed by both environmental and internal factors. The development of a plant is highly complex phenomena (Table 1).

The response of a plant to the relative length of day and night is called as

A. Photosynthesis      B. Phytochrome

C. Photoperiodism     D. Photo respiration

Growth and development are two important stages in a plant. Plant growth and development are under the control of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Growth is one of the fundamental characteristics of all living things. Even in Plants, the growth is visible but not measurable easily. Development in plants is actually a sum of two processes i.e. growth and differentiation.

Principles involved in plant growth and development: The various principles involved in plant growth and development are discussed below.

1. Totiopotency: Living plant cell has the potential to reproduce all the characteristics of the plant since it possesses all the genetic information.
2. Competence: It is the potential of cells or tissue to develop in a particular direction. Development of competency into a particular kind of cell(s), tissue or organ also may require special signals. These may originate internally within the plant or may originate externally as an environment signal, e.g. Internal change in type of growing point such as vegetative to flowering or initiation of adventitious roots on cuttings may be associated with a shift in the activity of specific hormones, external parameters i.e. application of growth regulators, or environment. It is mainly internal potential of meristem that gradually shifts from a vegetative shoot to one that produces flowers.

1. Choose the correct option for the characteristic of growth.

 a) It is an irreversible permanent increase in size of an organ or its parts or

even of an individual cell

 b)  It is accompanied by metabolic processes

 c) It occurs at the expense of energy

 d)  All of the above

2. Plant growth is unique because

 a) Plants bear the capacity for unlimited growth

 b)  Plants bear the capacity for limited growth

 c) Plants have diffused growth that differs from animals

 d)  None of the above  

Growth is a correlated increase in the mass of the body in definite intervals of time, in a way characteristic of the species i.e. increase in size and weight. This means growth includes the protein, fat and mineral deposition in the body. Growth is an irreversible increase in the metabolically active protoplasm. There is a characteristic rate of growth for each species and a characteristic adult size and development. Maximum size and development are fixed by heredity and nutrition is an essential factor determining whether this maximum will be reached. An optimum nutritional regime is the one which enables the organism to take full advantage of its heredity.

Once cells are obtained from a culture collection or isolated from animal tissue,, cells are put in the flask with growth medium. The cells are inoculated at a density of 104-105 cells/ml to get a concentration of 106 cells/ml or 105 cells/cm2 in a solid surface in 2-3 days because of nutrient limitation, accumulation of toxic metabolite or lacking of growth surface.

Growth of bacteria can be defined as change of total population mass, not individual increase in size or mass. Macroscopically visible growth of bacteria on the solid medium is known as ‘colony’. It is estimated that if Escherichia coli are allowed to grow, a single bacterial cell can produce a daughter population with the mass of the whole earth within 2 days! In the environment the bacteria are not actively growing all the time. The mechanisms behind the growth-arrested states of environmental bacteria are not well understood.

Bacterial reproduction

Bacterial reproduction is an asexual process which occurs by binary fission, budding, fragmentation and condiospore or sporangiospore formation. There is no possibility of genetic exchange (reassortment) as it is originated from a single parent cell. Bacterial gene transfer occurs by transformation, transduction and conjugation methods (discussed later in details). These are one-directional DNA transfer methods and are not associated with reproduction. The donor bacteria can give the genetic material to the recipient and the vice-versa does not occur.

Binary fission: In binary fission, bacterial DNA is replicated first and then the parent cell separates. Each daughter cell receives a complete genome, identical to the parent cell. Bacterial DNA replication begins when the cells reach a specific mass. If the cell diameter is constant, longer cells will begin DNA replication earlier than the shorter cells. The shorter cells need time to reach a critical mass required for the initiation of DNA replication. The ugtP proteins were identified to be associated with shorter cells and delayed DNA replication in Gram-positive bacteria (Bacillus subtilis). It was confirmed later that the ugtP act as inhibitor for Z-ring formation.

The term growth refers to an irreversible increase in size and weight of the plant. It normally reflects an increase in protoplasm, which may occur through increase in size of the cell and number of cells. Hence, the process of cell elongation and cell division provides the basis for growth. Cell division and enlargement are complicated processes involving synthesis of many organic compounds such as protein, cellulose and nucleic acid, besides the physical force required, which results in cell enlargement. The growth of the whole plant is compartmentalized into areas called ‘meristem’ where cell division and cell elongation are localized. The meristem cells such as shoot apex, root apex, cambium and the intercalary zones undergo repeated mitosis resulting in replication of DNA and nuclear material and finally the cell mass increases. Adjacent to this area of meristematic activity is the region of cell elongation, which phases in to the region of differentiation and maturation.

The increase in protoplasm (occurring in cell division and elongation) is brought about through a series of events in which water, carbon - di-oxide and inorganic salts are transformed into living materials. These events include (a) photosynthesis (production of carbohydrates) (b) nutrient absorption and translocation (uptake of water, nitrogen and other mineral elements) and (3) anabolism (synthesis of various materials produced in plant from the carbon fragments produced by photosynthesis and from the inorganic nutrients and water absorbed from the soil). The energy required for all these processes is provided by a catabolic process viz., respiration (degradation of sugars and fats to release energy). The net balance of anabolism and catabolism results in growth of the plant.

Limited availability of additional land for crop production, along with declining yield growth for major food crops, have heightened concerns about agriculture’s ability to feed a world population expected to exceed 7.5 billion by the year 2020. Decreasing soil fertility has also raised concerns about the sustainability of agricultural production at current levels. Future strategies for increasing agricultural productivity will have to focus on using available nutrient resources more efficiently, effectively, and sustainably than in the past. Management of the nutrients needed for proper plant growth, together with effective crop, water, soil, and land management, will be critical for sustaining agriculture over the long term. Plants, like all other living things, need food for their growth and development. Growth is the function of various factors like light, carbon dioxide gas, water and mineral nutrients. Plants require 16 essential elements. Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are derived from the atmosphere and soil water. The remaining 13 essential elements (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, iron, zinc, manganese, copper, boron, molybdenum, and chlorine) are supplied either from soil minerals and soil organic matter or by organic or inorganic fertilizers. For plants to utilize these nutrients efficiently, light, heat, and water must be adequately supplied. Cultural practices and control of diseases and insects also play important roles in crop production. Each type of plant is unique and has an optimum nutrient range as well as a minimum requirement level. Below this minimum level, plants start to show nutrient deficiency symptoms. Excessive nutrient uptake can also cause poor growth because of toxicity. Therefore, the proper amount of application and the placement of nutrients are important.

1. Growth of plant pathogens

Various plant pathogens, namely fungi, bacteria, nematodes, viruses, viroids, mollicutes, fastidious bacteria, and protozoa, grow in different ways.

1.1 Fungi and parasitic higher plants

Fungal pathogens and parasitic higher plants usually invade and infect tissues by growing on or in them from the first point of inoculation.

Most of these pathogens, whether they cause small lesions or large infected areas on the plant, grow, branch, and spread to more and more plant tissues until the infection stops spreading or the plant dies.

Growth is a characteristic of life of any living being, and it continues until the end of organism. It is expressed in height, weight, volume, size, shape, number and area in every biological system. The shape and size of the plants are because of their continued cellular development and differentiation. Growth, which is quantified mathematically in terms of time, is termed as growth rate, and this gives a valuable information documenting growth as influenced by various abiotic, edaphic and biotic factors.

Principles

Various growth indices are better indicators of plant or crop performance under a specific treatment. Growth indices can be calculated from pot culture or field grown plants. Growth curve can be fitted using these values to predict productivity.

Requirements

Greenhouse or field-grown plants, scale, tags, hot air oven, electronic balance and leaf area meter are the basic requirements for recording the data on different parameters of growth.

Introduction

Rice plays a unique role in providing food to the majority of the world population. Rice is the most widely consumed food for nearly three-fourths of the population in India. Now a days scented rice is getting higher market price than normal rice varieties. Black Scented rice is commonly considered as forbidden rice. Different researches proved that black Scented rice is one of the “super food” of the world. Black Scented rice is consumed in various ways like puddings, pulao, bread, etc in different festivals and during important ceremonies. Mostly this crop is prone to lodging but resistance to infestation by insect and pest. Works done in India and abroad indicates that the particular method of establishment, adequate level of nitrogen and a particular time of application of nitrogenous fertilizer can enhance productivity. Nitrogen is the main nutrient that determines rice yield, due to its role in the photosynthesis, biomass accumulation and, spikelet formation (Hasegawa et al., 1994; Yoshida et al., 2006).

a) Large Unpenetrated Market
According to the sample registration system (SRS) baseline survey, 2014 released by the registrar general of India, 71 percent of Indians over the age of 15 are non-vegetarian.
b) Young Growing Population and Nutritional Security
India as a one of the major young population country in the world (27.4%) according to FAO, OECD 2018 data there is a huge need to address the nutritional security of the people with higher protein diet. Thus, we have high requirement of protein to feed country’s population in up- coming years.
c) Per Capita Consumption & Income
The annual per capita consumption of broiler meat and eggs for India is far below then recommended consumption of 180 eggs and 10.8 kg poultry meat per person per annum by Indian Council of Medical Research. The increase in per capita disposable income has led to an overall increase in food consumption, particularly protein in the form of meat and eggs.
(McKisney and company Report, 2013). The study conducted by Law et al. (2019) suggested that in India the consumer preference has changed and the cereals are now substitute of animal products rather than a complementary product

Regulations should make it easier to utilise creative, long-lasting solutions, allowing for the selection of the most environmentally friendly pest management method. This can be accomplished by using expedited registration, priority registration, and a combination of comparative evaluation of pest control techniques and the substitution principle, which allows a natural pest control technique to take the place of a synthetic pesticide.

Need of Bioinformatics

Bioinformatics, an emerging area offering a fundamental tool to the scientific community, to speed up the research, application and commercialization of biotechnology. In fact the best thing, which has happened towards the end of the 20^th century and in the 21^st century, is the marriage between biotechnologists and information technologists leading to the growth and development of this field. India took a lead as early as in the 1980s but more precisely from 1986 onwards by establishing a strong base of Bioinformatics with the necessary infrastructure. As a result one has seen major breakthroughs in biology and the growth of biotechnology has been phenomenal in the last decade, especially with the most outstanding technological breakthrough of the 20^th century wherein the draft human genome sequence was completed in 2000 and now the genetic code is completely sequenced. This has provided the worlds scientific community information on the vast sequence and structure of the Genomes, the crystal structures and there is an increasing dependence on computational approaches. Biotechnology has emerged as a front-line area with vital significance in unraveling secrets of life, particularly in the studies of new biology and biotechnology. The genomic revolution has underscored the central role of Bioinformatics in understanding the very basic of life processes.

The term growth as applied to higher organisms such as animals commonly is concerned with increase in protoplasmic mass and does apply to reproduction or to increase in number. In microbiology the term refers to increase in the number of organisms. Bacteria increase in number by a process of simple binary fission. Each cell increase in size and redivide into two similar cells. Each of the divide cells may in turn divide to become two cells. Each division produces what is termed as new generation of cells, theoretically there are 2,4,8,16,32,64,128,256 cells in the 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,& 9th generation, this is known as logarithmic growth – the population doubles with each successive generation. Under favourable conditions, bacteria produce generation within 15min. Under unfavourable conditions 24 hours of more may be needed for each generation. Generation time for E.coli is 17 to 20 minutes.

INTRODUCTION

Aquaculture is the fastest growing food producing sector with annual growth rate of 10.34% and it play a very important role in improving the income generation as well as nutritional security of farmers in many developing countries including India. In the fresh water system, carps are the most widely cultured species throughout the country and carp culture in India is believed to be as old as carp culture in China. Although in early years, carp culture was largely restricted to the North-Eastern States of India, during the last four to five decades, it has spread to almost all parts. The traditional carp culture practice is rapidly transforming into scientific farming in several parts of India. Generally, carp culture in India is a polyculture of 3-6 species of major carps and exotic carps (Vijay Anand, 2019), namely, catla (Catla catla), rohu (Labeo rohita), mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala), silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Among six species, common carp (Cyprinus carpio) cultured in the composite fish farming system is potential species, which plays a vital role in the Inland Fish production especially for the North Eastern Hill states of India as the species has got high adaptability and tolerance towards high range of temperature and dissolved oxygen variation. The species is introduced to India in 1937 as the Prussian strain and in 1957 as the Bangkok strain. Due to their high food value, the farmers of the state have been culturing the fish in rice fields in monoculture or along with other species particularly in Apatani Plateau of Ziro area gaining an average weight 75g to 110g (Hussain et al., 2018).

The growth pole theory was developed by French regional economist, Francois Perroux, in 1955. He was concerned with the phenomenon of economic development and with the process of structural change. Growth pole is a central location of economic activity. It is an urban location where economic activity ignites growth and better quality of life in the urban periphery.

He attempted to explain how modern process of economic growth deviated from the stationary conception of equilibrium growth. His arguments were based on Schumpeter’s theories of the role of innovations and large scale firms.

In Schumpeter’s analysis, development occurs as a result of discontinuous spurts in a dynamic world. The cause of discontinuous spurts is the innovative entrepreneur whose activities take place in large-scale firms. These firms are able to dominate their environment in the sense of exercising reversible and partially reversible influences on other economic units by reason of their dimension and negotiating strength, and by the nature of their operations.

Scale of operations, dominance and impulses have close relationship to innovate. This is the most important feature of Perroux’s theory and leads to the concepts of dynamic propulsive firm and leading propulsive industry. The dynamic propulsive firm is relatively large and belongs to a relatively fast growing sector. It has a high ability to innovate and intensity of its interrelation with other sectors of the economy is important enough for the induced effects to be transmitted to them.

11.1 INTRODUCTION

Plant growth regulators have remained an important component in horticulture from time immemorial because they were effective means of quantitative as well as qualitative improvement in growth and development of crops. Plant Growth Regulators (PGR) are diverse group of organic compounds other than nutrients, produced artificially or by plants which in low concentrations promote, inhibit or modify the physiological process in plant. The term includes both naturally occurring phytohormones as well as synthetic compounds. These are produced naturally in higher plants, controlling growth or other physiological functions at a site remote from its place of production and active in minute amounts. Plant Growth Regulators are used in different forms like liquid, powder, paste etc. “Hormone” is Greek word derived from “hormao”, which means to stimulate. Thimone (1948) suggested the use of term ‘phytohormones’ as the organic substance, which are produced naturally in plants, synthesised in one Part And usually translocated to other part wherein every small quantity affects the growth and other physiological function of the plants. To distinguish them from the animal hormones they are termed as phytohormones. Auxin was the first hormone to be discovered in plants and at one time considered to be only naturally occurring plant growth hormone. The role of plant growth regulators in various physiological processes such as seed germination, f lowering, fruiting, seed development, fruit ripening and yield etc. in different crop plants is well established (Kiran et al., 2011). There are five classical phytohormones: auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene and abscisic acid. Besides classical phytohormones a variety of other compounds that play roles in plant growth and development have also been identified, including jasmonic acid, salicylic acid, brassinosteroids and polyamines (Basra, 2000). The application of plant growth regulators in agriculture has started in 1930 in the United States. Ethylene, a naturally occurring substance, is one of the first plant growth regulators being discovered and used successfully for enhancing f lower production in pineapple (Fishel, 2006). Its toxic effects to human beings are low.

Growth and differentiation are regulated by a group of organic compounds known as growth regulators. These growth regulators regulate growth not only at the organ level but also in the plant as a whole. They can be broadly defined as organic compounds synthesized in one part of a plant transported to another where at very low concentration they cause a physiological response.

There are five major groups of growth regulators, namely, the Auxins, Gibberellins, Cytokinins, Ethylene andAbscisic acid. Endogenously synthesized growth regulators are often referred to as plant growth hormones. However, a number of synthetic compounds eliciting similar response as that of the growth hormones have been identified and extensively used. These synthetic hormones effectively substitute the endogenous hormones to understand the basic mechanisms of hormones and also for commercial use.

If frost has hit an orchard during winters, it does not always imply that permanent loss has occurred. Plants do possess natural protective mechanisms due to which they survive the stress to a variable extent depending upon their nature and organ being exposed to the stress.

•    A corn plant requires a certain number of growing degree units (GDUs) to reach maturity, regardless of the number of calendar days it takes to accumulate.
•    The relationship of GDU accumulation and corn development, along with utilizing the estimated number of days to reach a certain growth stage, can help predict when important growth stages will occur.
•    Growth stages can be used to help growers make timely applications of herbicides and fungicides. The following information is on corn growth and development from emergence to R6 growth stage.
•    Corn growth stage development can vary according to corn maturity. An early maturing product may produce fewer leaves or develop through growth stages faster than a slower paced late maturing product. This is important to remember when staging corn in relation to accumulated GDUs.

Guar [Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub.], internationally known as guar, is extremely drought hardy, deep rooted, summer annual legume of great economic and adaptive significance. Virtues of guar effectively match with low and erratic rainfall pattern and high ambient temperature habitats of arid regions. The crop may thrive very well in rainfall range of 250-450 mm with 3-4 spells, temperature range of 25-40°C, RH values of 50-65%, longer days with 8-9 hr sunshine, particularly at maturity. Guar is ideally suited to light to medium textured soils, with no water logging conditions. The crop tolerates less inputs and restricted after care, matching with the arid farmers’ livelihood conditions. It is grown for grain, vegetable, fodder, cattle feed and green manure purposes, mainly in rainfed habitats of Rajasthan, Haryana, Gujarat and to some extent in Punjab and Madhya Pradesh. This crop has recently been introduced in non-traditional regions of Annantpur, Kadappa and Chittoor dry region of Andhra Pradesh. Only duringcurrent summer season of 2012, guar has been successfully cultivated with 4-5 irrigations in parts of Chattirgarh and Vidarbha and in non traditional summer seasons of Rajasthan. The cultivation in non-traditional regions and seasons have increased possibility of two crops in rainy and summer seasons. Even though, guar is cultivated on marginal lands, with marginal inputs in these regions, yet it has occupied the status of international, export oriented cash crop. The same has been due to presence of natural polysaccharide galactomannan gum content in seed endosperm. The gum content has wide industrial uses. Almost 80-85% guar gum produced in India is exported and rest is used for inland commercial demands. Of late, increasing demands of guar gum for USA alone to the tune of 5.0 lakh tonnes annually has led to sky rocketing prices resulting in economic benefit of Rs. 1.0 lakh to 1.5 lakh/ha in 90-100 days only. Hence, guar is rated as a source for providing livelihood security to arid farmers in practical reference. Relevant information on guar have been provided in this chapter.

Introduction

Seaweed, a diverse group of marine algae, thrives in a variety of aquatic environments across the world’s oceans. Found in both shallow coastal waters and deeper offshore regions, seaweed plays a crucial ecological role in marine ecosystems. It attaches itself to rocky substrates, sandy seabed, or even other marine organisms, utilizing the rich nutrients present in seawater for growth. Seaweed populations are influenced by factors such as water temperature, light availability, and nutrient levels.

Guava is one of the most common fruits grown widely throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Guava is hardy in nature, prolific bearing and highly remunerative even without much care (Mitra and Bose, 1990). Because of its excellent adaptability and exceptional performance in the tropics, it is regarded as the ‘apple of tropics’.

In India, guava is the fifth most important fruit crop in terms of area and production. It is cultivated over 1.51 lakh ha area with a total production of 18.0 lakh tones (Chadha, 2001). It is rich in pectin and used for jelly making. It is useful as table fruit and also for processing purpose.

It is known by different names viz., madhuri (Assamese), peyara (Bengali), phanas (Gujrati), amrood (Hindi), sebe (Kannad), soh-priya (Khasi-Meghalaya), komperam (Garo-Meghalaya), pera (Malayalam), peru (Marathi), pijuli (Oriya), amrud (Punjabi), koyya (Tamil) and jama (Telugu).

Guava (Psidium guajava. L), a highly nutritious fruit very popular as poor man’s apple. Guava belongs to the family Myrtaceae. Guava is native to tropical America and is found growing wild from Mexico to Peru. Spaniards introduced guava in Phillippinnes and the Portuguese in India. Besides India, it also grown in Sri Lanka, Hawaiian Islandsm and Cuba. Guava had been introduced in India by Portuguese in 17^th century, and ever since it is an important fruit crop of India. In many countries it has been spread by birds, where it has been naturalized long back. In India it is cultivated in the plains in almost all the states but the major guava growing states are Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Punjab, Karnatak, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Chhatisgarh.

Cultivars: Allahabad Safeda, Lucknow-49, Chittidar, Nagapur Seedless, Bangalore, Dharwar, Akra Mridula, Arka Amulya, Harijha, Hafshi, Allahabad Surkha CISHG1, CISH-G2, CISH-G-3, Harija, Baruipur, etc.

Uses

Guava fruit is relished when mature or ripe and freshly plucked from the tree. Excellent salad and pudding are prepared from the shell of the ripe fruit. Ripe and unripe juicy fruits are eaten fresh. The fruits after removal of seeds, are used for preparing jam, jelly, paste, juice and nectar. It is also canned in sugars syrup and made into fruit butter. In some countries, the leaves are used for treating diarrhea and also for dyeing and tanning.

Guava (Psidium guajava L) is an important fruit crop of India. It has gained considerable prominence on account of its high nutritive value, availability at moderate prices, pleasant aroma and good flavour. It is one of the commonest fruits liked by the rich and the poor and is popularly known as the ‘apple of tropics’. It is one of the hardiest fruit trees adaptable to a variety of soil and climatic conditions. It comes up well even under neglected conditions and in fact it is even considered sometime as a weed in Fiji and Hawaii. Guava fruit is relished when mature or ripe or when freshly plucked from the tree. It is also used for many commercial products like jelly, fruit butter, juice, etc.The guava is said to have originated from tropical America (Hayes, 1953). De Candolle (1904) stated that it originated in Mexico, while Purseglove (1968) opined that it originated in Brazil. It is widely distributed all over the equatorial regions of tropical and sub-tropical climate. It was introduced to India during the 17th Century. In Spanish, the tree is known as guayabo, or guayavo, the fruit guayaba or guyava. The French call it goyave or goyavier; the Dutch, guyaba, goeajaaba; the Surinamese, guave or goejaba; and the Portuguese, goiaba or goaibeira. Hawaiians call it guava or kuawa. In Guam it is abas. In Malaya, it is generally known either as guava or jambu batu, but has also numerous dialectal names as it does in India, tropical Africa and the Philippines where the name, bayabas, is often applied. Various tribal names–pichi, posh, enandi, etc., are employed among the Indians of Mexico and Central and South America.

Material balance data

Guava pulp : 5.00 kg

Amount of sugar added : 4.50 kg

Amount of glucose added : 500 gm

Amount of SMP added : 700 gm

Guava is a highly nutritious fruit with an impressive array of vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber. It’s nutritional profile makes it an excellent choice for maintaining a healthy diet. The high vitamin C content, in particular, contributes to its antioxidant properties, which can help boost the immune system and protect against various diseases. The fiber content aids digestion and promotes gastrointestinal health. Incorporating guava into your regular diet can be a flavorful and nutritious way to stay healthy. The Indian population adores the tropical delicacy known as guava (Psidium guajava). It thrives in both commercial and wild orchards throughout subtropical and tropical countries, and it comes in a wide variety of sizes, colours, and forms (i.e pomiforms and pyriforms). Guava is valued for its notable therapeutic properties in addition to its delicious taste. It has shown that both the fruit itself and guava leaf extracts have anti-carcinogenic properties. As a result, it has established itself as a strong rival in the world of anti-cancer fruits. In the field of cancer treatment, diet plays a crucial part in improving the wellbeing of patients receiving chemotherapy while also reducing the risk of cancer development. This remarkable plant has been embraced for its multifaceted attributes, including its antimicrobial, emmenagogue, anti-inflammatory, astringent, antispasmodic, and gastrointestinal advantages (Jiménez-Escrig et al., 2001).
In India, guava leaves have a special place in the world of Ayurveda. These leaves are useful for treating a range of medical disorders, including as toothaches, rheumatic diseases, digestive problems, skin wounds, and specific microbiological infections. Guava is used for its ability to treat hypertension (high blood pressure) and influenza infections throughout Southeast Asian countries. The leaves of this plant are used in Malaysia to treat diarrhoea, relieve stomach aches, and aid in placenta discharge after childbirth. Guava is used as an antibacterial, anti-diarrheal, and anti-diabetic agent in China (Daswani et al., 2017).

Guava is native to tropical America, commonly known as ‘Apple of Tropics’ and it has got much greater health benefits than apple, therefore, it is also known as ‘Poor man’s Apple’. It is widely grown in the tropics, enriching the diet of million of people in the world. Guava has spread widely throughout the world because it thrives in a variety of soils, propagated easily and bears fruit relatively quickly in comparison with other fruits. At the beginning of the 16th century the Portuguese introduced it throughout the Pacific as far as the Philippines and the Spanish took it to India. 

Spiralling whitefly : Aleurodicus dispersus : Aleyrodidae

A. dispersus originated from the tropical countries in Central and South America. More recently, it has been reported from Asia and Africa. In India, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu faces its problem. A. dispersus is a highly polyphagous species. Its wide host range includes many vegetable, ornamental and fruit crops, as well as numerous trees and shrubs, including Capsicum, Citrus, Cocos nucifera (coconut), Euphorbia pulcherrima (poinsettia), Glycine max (soybean), Hibiscus, Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato), Mangifera indica (mango), Musa (banana), Persea americana (avocado), Prunus spp., Psidium guajava (guava)and  Solanum melongena (brinjal) etc.