eChapters

Rabbit domestication dates back no farther than the previous millennium. It were the Phoenicians who are said to have discovered the wild rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus of Southern Europe and North Africa when they reached the shores of Spain about 1000 B.C. In Roman times, the rabbit was still emblematic of Spain. The Roman spread the rabbit throughout the empire as a game animal. Like the Spaniards, the Romans also ate foetuses or new born rabbits, which they called laurices. It then becomes a practice that the rabbits were kept in leporarian, stone –walled pens or parks for hunting purposes. These leporaria ultimately paved the way for the development of game parks in the middle Ages. The monks ate laurices during lent because they were an aquatic dish. In France, only the lord of the manor could maintain a warren.

Natural farming in India is deeply rooted in ancient agricultural traditions that prioritized ecological balance and sustainability long before chemical-based farming became widespread. Traditionally, Indian farmers relied on natural cycles, indigenous seeds, animal manure, and mixed cropping to maintain soil fertility, preserve water resources, and enhance biodiversity—principles that form the core of present-day natural farming.
The modern natural farming movement drew global inspiration from Masanobu Fukuoka, a Japanese farmer and philosopher who developed the “do-nothing” method. His philosophy advocated no plowing, no chemical use, and minimal human intervention, which resonated strongly with India’s Vedic agricultural practices. In India, Subhash Palekar further revived and adapted this approach into Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF), a system using local materials such as cow dung, urine, and crop residues. ZBNF emerged as a grassroots response to the ecological damage and financial burdens caused by Green Revolution methods.
Natural farming has since gained international attention. Countries like South Korea, Brazil, and the Philippines have embraced similar ecological practices to address soil degradation and input costs. The FAO and other global bodies also support agroecological methods that mirror natural farming for sustainable food systems.

1.1 Introduction

With the rise in the global population, the demand for increased supply of food has motivated scientists and engineers to design new methods to boost agricultural production. With limited availability of land and water resources, growth in agriculture can be achieved only by increasing productivity through good agronomy and supported with an effective use of modern technology. Advanced agronomical methods lay stress not only on boosting agricultural produce through use of more effective fertilizers and pesticides, but also on the hygienic storage of agricultural produce. The detrimental effects of modern agricultural methods on the ecosystem have raised serious concerns amongst environmentalists. The widespread use of persistent pesticides globally over the last six decades has contaminated groundwater and soil, resulting in diseases and hardships in non-target species such as humans and animals. The first step in the removal of disease causing microbes from food products or harmful contaminants from soil and groundwater is the effective detection of these damaging elements. Nanotechnology can augment agricultural production and boost food processing industry through applications of these unique properties.

Water is essential for life and most of the civilization flourished on bank of rivers like Indus valley, Mesopotamia, May, INCA and also destroyed in lack of water. Scarcities and famines were the common phenomena of the world civilization. Systematic dry cultivation started around 1850 and improved techniques were started in use in USA. 

Introduction

It has been proved that libraries play a crucial role in education. Libraries have been collecting, preserving, and organizing knowledge since time immemorial. In the age of virtual information, libraries have been reinventing themselves as accessible and engaging learning spaces. Libraries existed in India during the ancient and medieval periods. The library is the primary requirement of the university. University libraries have a paramount role in developing university education in the country. The present chapter highlights the historical development of libraries, committees, and commissions on university libraries in India.

Research is the basics which have changed human life and surrounding environment what existed on earth million years ago into present form. As soon as man realized himself as a separate entity from other animals, he started thinking about himself, creatures co-inhabiting with him and the universe. In that sense, biological science is the oldest subject which fascinated man, though it was called natural sciences in ancient times. Perhaps, the first curiosity was about himself, his birth, death and alike matters. As soon as he realized mortality of life or faced death of his dear ones, he attempted to become immortal or ‘amar’. This is reflected by worshiping of ‘Asur ’(Hirnakashyap, Bhasmasur, Ravan etc) to ‘Brahma’ or ‘Shiva’ for receiving the blessings of becoming immortal . However, even God refrained to bless these personalities becoming ‘amar’ confirming the realization by all that life is strongly linked with death ; as such they were blessed with certain conditional ties which may lead their death. Eventually, they met with their death under specific circumstances (3). When God or His little part (Ansh) took birth on earth as incarnation, He also followed all the rules and regulations of cosmic laws. But He never tried to become immortal and left His body on the earth, after finishing His duties.

India faced a series of famines from 1857 to 1901, for which the government was forced to appoint some commissions. The Famine Commission of 1880 recommended the establishment of a separate Department of Agriculture at both the central and provincial levels. Based on such recommendations, the Agricultural Departments were established in 1981–1982, and some acts like the Land Improvement Act and Agricultural Loans Act, 1988 and Co- operative Act, 1904 were passed and development departments were established. As a protection measure, some irrigation projects were created. The Famine Commission (1901) also recommended for establishment of Agricultural Research Stations and Colleges. The Imperial Agricultural Research Institute along with an Agricultural College was established at Pusa Institute. As per the Government India Act of 1919, all departments connected with rural development to the major provinces and agricultural development became a State subject. Rural Development works were made provincial subjects from 1935. Various diversified efforts for rural reconstruction were made for the development of extension in India during the Pre- Independence and Post- Independence periods. These extension programs were launched in four stages as indicated below.

Stage I: Pre- Independence Extension

Stage II: Post- Independence Extension (1947–1953)

Stage III: Community Development and National Extension service (1953–1960)

Stage IV: Intensive Agricultural Development (1960 onwards)

Pre- independence extension in India

Between 1903 and 1946, eight important area- specific programs were implemented for rural development while the Grow More Food Campaign was implemented in the entire country to increase food grains production. The description of these programs/projects is given below in brief.

ABSTRACT

This paper provides an account on the origin of the concepts of IP, gradual development and their culmination at the TRIPS.

Introduction

Intellectual property rights form the most prominent and ever-expanding category of rights in the 21^st Century. It differs from other proprietary rights in many respects and prevails in most articles of law, which influence our daily life. The economic significance of intellectual property rights has made it a subject of global political interest. In the broader sense, the term “intellectual property rights” connotes different categories of rights such as patents, copyrights, trademarks, designs, plant varieties, semiconductors, geographical indications, trade secrets and data exclusivity with varying scope

Aquaculture is associated with the rearing, breeding, and harvesting of aquatic organisms in cages, tanks, ponds, or other simulated systems, and can be practiced in fresh water, brackish water, or marine water. The practice of cultivating aquatic species in a systematic manner dates back to before 1000 BC. Theories such as oxbow, catch-and-hold, concentration, and trap-and cropexplain how the transition from hunting to farming may have occurred along with the advancement of civilization. Along with rearing the aquatic species for nourishment, advanced techniques have led to the enhancement of economic value through the inclusion of pearl oyster farming. India is among the largest producers of fisheries and has become the world’s second largest producer of aquaculture fish. Globally, aquaculture diversity has reached a maximum value of 428 ± 11 species, of which 29 ± 1 will produce 80% of the global annual production. The total global aquaculture production has increased enormously, from 20 million tons in 1992 to more than 120 million tons in 2020. Fisheries and aquaculture have become essential foods providing commodities worldwide and an important means of nourishment for the poor. A temporal and geographical analysis of global aquaculture diversity reveals an original and hopefully enlightening vision of modern aquaculture and its perspectives.

This chapter attempts to travel the timeline and dissect historical perspectives of vaccination. Vaccine that protects and shields from numerous dangerous diseases (vaccine-preventable diseases; VPD) is an important area of research and development. Considering that vaccine has been very useful in successfully combating numerous infectious diseases in the past 200 years, they are considered as a historical turning point in the field of public health and medicines. Critical illnesses like the smallpox and wild polio (virus types 2 and 3) have mostly been eradicated as a result of mass immunisation programmes worldwide. Research, collaboration and widespread vaccination campaigns were necessary in vaccination efforts to control and ultimately eradicate infectious diseases. Biotechnological research has progressed to a level where producing recombinant vaccines is feasible. Research and development efforts on therapeutic vaccines are ongoing. Vaccine research in recombinant DNA/RNA technologies and therapeutic vaccinations for specific illnesses seem to be the future. This article offers a comprehensive history of vaccination since inception to its present forms, with future projections. Beginning with the variolation techniques in the early 17th century, it discusses the important turn of events from its discovery to the continued advancements and inventions till the covid-19 vaccine. Alongside the detailed core aspect, the chapter also describes the benefits of the one health approach with the zoonotic diseases in focus.

India is facing with the issue of food production, especially the production of protein resources. The food production rate in India is insufficient to cope up with an alarmingly growing population. Protein deficiency is currently the most serious human malnutritional problem, with protein deficiency affecting about 30% of the world’s population. To cope up with the current situation, there is therefore a need for an all-out effort to increase food production especially the production of animal protein. Pisciculture has acquired primary importance in this context, and the culture of Indian major carps and their allies is now a common practice. For a long time, the culture of air-breathing fishes in the derelict water has remained neglected. Many such fishes, however, have become popular in the recent past, being rich in their food value.

The demand for fish as nutritious food is increasing day by day, as it is a good source of high quality-protein and lipid and is more palatable than vegetables. It is relished for its characteristic flavour due to high myofibrillar and low stroma protein, rich in essential amino acids particularly lysine and arginine (Kinsella, 1986). Fish proteins play a beneficial role in lipid and cholesterol metabolism by reducing triacylglycerol (=triglyceride) and phospholipid levels in plasma (Tsukuda and Arai, 1986). These proteins occupy an important place in human nutrition due to their high digestibility and growth-promoting value. Fish lipid has a high amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUSFAS), which reduce plasma cholesterol, and this helps in ischemic heart disease and arteriosclerosis (Kinsella, 1986).

The biocontrol use had almost completely disappeared due to the growth and success of the synthetic pesticide industry in the mid-1940s. The publication of Rachael Carson's 'Silent Spring' (Carson 1962) which condemned the use of agricultural pesticides and emphasized their harmful environmental effects on wildlife. Due to public outrage over this controversial book, there was a need for pesticide alternatives, which presents an opportunity for wider use of biological control (Barratt et al. 2010; Gay 2012).

This chapter introduces the evolution of forestry from traditional human dependence on forest resources to a multidisciplinary scientific field concerned with ecological, economic, and social objectives. It traces the development of scientific forestry in Europe and its expansion into India, including the influence of German and French forestry systems. The chapter examines the establishment of forest administration, forest legislation, and the changing role of forestry during the colonial and post-independence periods. It also discusses the evolution of national forest policies, farm forestry, social forestry, participatory forest management, forestry education, and contemporary conservation frameworks. The chapter highlights the transition from production-oriented forestry toward sustainable forest management, biodiversity conservation, community participation, and climate resilience.

Social civilization of the Neolithic settlements of primitive human communities contributes substantial initiation of cultivation and an approach towards conservation of useful plant species for sustainable food habits. Several archaeological attestations confirm that Homo sapiens at the end of the Paleolithic period had knowledge on many useful plants derived from food gathering techniques. Growth of human populations beyond the size that hardly supports hunting and gathering for food materials may perhaps be the probable reason that forced the Neolithic primitive nomadic communities for settlement and emergence of crude forms of cultivation.

History of Soil Microbiology

There is enough evidence in the literature to believe that microorganisms were the earliest of the living things that existed on this planet. Man depends on crop plants for his existence and crop plants in turn depend on soil and soil microorganisms for their nutrition. Scientists from the beginning studied the microorganisms from water, air, soil, etc. and recognized the role of microorganisms in natural processes and realized the importance of soil microorganisms in the growth and development of plants.Thus, microorganisms have been playing a significant role long before they were discovered by man. Today, the soil is considered to be the main source of scavenging the organic wastes through microbial action and is also a rich storehouse for industrial microflora of great economic importance.

Unlike soil science whose origin can be traced back to Roman and Aryan times, soil microbiology emerges as a distinct branch of soil science during the first half of the 19^th century. Some of the notable contributions made by several scientists in the field of soil microbiology are highlighted in the following paragraphs.

Anton Von Leeuwenhoek (1673) discovered and described microorganisms through his own made first simple microscope with a magnification of 200 to 300 times. He observed minute, moving objects which he called “animalcules” (small animals) which are now known as protozoa, fungi, and bacteria. He for the first time made the authentic drawings of microorganisms (protozoa, bacteria, fungi).

Development of Agriculture in the World and in India

Agricultural ecosystems will increasingly be called on to deliver food and fiber for a demanding and expanding global population. Until recently, increased production relied on expansion of the amount of land under cultivation and irrigation. Since World War II, production advances have relied on genetics and plant breeding, advances in fertilizer and pesticide use and improved cultural management (Matson et al., 1997). Since 1950, agriculture worldwide has expanded cereal production by an average of 2% per annum while population has increased by 1.9% per year (Borlaug and Dowswell, 1994).

Modern science-based agriculture had its beginnings in the late 19^th century with improved traction and tillage equipments. However, it was not until after World War II that the research findings that led to the modern-day productive systems in the United States and later in European and other developed countries. The expansion was directly related to the great demand for food to support the Allied war effort. Knowledge bases developed in plant genetics, physiology and pathology, along with a ten-fold increase in fertilizer use, advances in seed technology, weed control, irrigation and cultural methods allowed the development of the systems that dominate agriculture in many of the countries today. Corn or maize responded dramatically to the advances in production technology. Maize yield in the United States has increased more than 300 per cent over the past 50 years and continues to rise. Maize production technology has been delivered worldwide (Borlaug and Dowswell, 1994).

Worldwide, agriculture is the foundation of early human civilization. Humans transitioned from hunting and gathering to farming when they settled near rivers. As a consistent source of food, agriculture aided in human evolution. From then on, the economy has been sustained by agriculture. Among other things, illnesses and natural disasters frequently have an impact on agriculture. Such a state required advisory. This explains the existence of the agricultural extension domain. A social innovation, agricultural extension has been copied, altered, and developed over the years.

A review on historic occurrences of tsunamis in the Indian Ocean and their associated characteristics followed by detailed characterization of genetic causes of recent tsunamiarepresented in this chapter. Althoughsubmarineearthquakes occur very frequently, resultant tsunami and its strength relied on many factors including transformation of energy into the ocean water, area of rupturing of ocean floor, duration of rupturing, accompanying submarine slides, kind of material at focus of earthquakes and type of faulting. The direction of tsunami wave propagation plays the decisive role in deciding sites of impacts. Perfect blend of all these parameters is required to make a submarine earthquake to generate devastating tsunami, which is relatively rare in geological history. This is the reason why although there were as many as 77 tsunamis that occurred in the Indian Ocean region during historic past, the recent one of 26th December 2004 is deadly and rare geological occurrence. However, aftermath effects in terms of volcanic eruptions, coastal high wave activities and change in climatic cycles are recorded since then and require constant scientific vigil.

INTRODUCTION

Tsunami is defined as a sea wave of local or distant origin that results from large-scale seafloor displacement associated with major earthquake or submarine slide or submarine volcanic explosion. Many a times it is incorrectly described as tidal wave or seismic sea wave, as both of these terms mislead in regard to its mechanism of generation. In Tamil Sangam literature, tsunami is cited as “Azhipperalai”. In South America, it is termed as “Maremoto”. Other names for tsunami include “Flutwellen”, “Vloedgolven” “raz de mare” “Vagues Sismique” and Kai e’e. Prevalence of specific terms for tsunami in many such regions and languages itself stands testimony to the fact that tsunami is known to ancient human populations and that tsunami occurred frequently the historics past.

History of plant pathology records chronological account of important events, contributions of persons who significantly influenced the thinking of their era and interpretation of the observed facts or phenomenon over a period of time. Historical writings help us to understand systematic development in plant pathology, and there problems faced by certain outstanding workers whose view points were unacceptable to majority of opinion makers, simply because it was new and against the established norms of the day. History of plant pathology is a must read for the students of this discipline. The historical accounts will unfold the stories that may motivate the new generation to think and interpret the findings in their own way, without fear of established theories and dogmas carried from the past.

History

The history of organic farming is largely based upon the history of organic movement which came to fore as a reaction against the large-scale use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture. This movement can be traced back to England during 1920, when individuals started speaking against a variety of agricultural “innovation”.

One of the earlier pioneers of Organic Farming, Sir Albert Howard, is often referred to as the father of the modern “Organic Farming”. He began to work as a British botanist and served as an agriculture advisor in India, where he observed traditional Indian farming practices and came to respect them as superior to his conventional agriculture science. He documented and developed these organic farming practices/methods. His writings and notably the 1940 book, An Agricultural Testament, have influenced many scientists and farmers of the day.

In Germany Dr. Rudolf Steiner developed biodynamic agriculture which was probably the first comprehensive farming system. In America, the agronomist F.H. King had toured China, Korea and Japan in early 1990s, closely studied the fertilization, tillage and general farming practices being followed there. He published his findings in his book Farmers of Forty Centuries (1911). King probably did not impart any view himself as part of the movement, whether Organic Farming movement or by some other name. However, in the later years, some scientists within the organic farming movement thought, about what King had encountered in Asia as kindred approach.

This chapter introduces the historical development and fundamental concepts of immunology. It highlights the contributions of Edward Jenner, Louis Pasteur, Elie Metchnikoff, Paul Ehrlich, Emil von Behring and other pioneering scientists. Important discoveries related to vaccination, phagocytosis, antibody formation, cellular immunity, ELISA, radioimmunoassay and hybridoma technology are addressed. The chapter also explains antigens, immunogens, epitopes, haptens, adjuvants and the desirable characteristics of an effective immunogen. Questions concerning smallpox and rinderpest eradication, vaccine development and primary and secondary immune responses help readers understand the scientific milestones that established immunology as an essential discipline within veterinary and biomedical sciences.

Introduction

‘Protected cultivation’ is a method of cultivation of plants or crops in artificial environment (Polyhouse/ Greenhouse/Glasshouse) to protect the plants or crops from the natural calamities viz. wind, hailstorm, excessive radiation, temperature extremes, insect-pests and diseases. For matching ever growing needs of human population in the country, it has become imperative to provide the not just cereals but also fruits, vegetables, flowers and other horticultural products to fulfill their requirements. In the present scenario of perpetual demand of horticultural produce in order to increase their production round the year and shrinking landholdings drastically, protected cultivation is the best alternative and drugery- less approach for using land and other resources more effeciently.Protected cultivation comprised of selection of crop and media, climate control,marketing, post harvest technology, plant protection and irrigation/ fertigation.

In India, states like Karnataka, Andra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu are the best suited for protected cultivation of horticultural crops due to their pleasent climatic conditions. Apart from these states, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, West Bengal, Delhi and Jharkhand are also fore runners in adopting protected cultivation. Protected cultivation is a key for sustainable production in the country due to its various ecological regions viz., Western Himalayan region, North eastern Himalayas, Eastern Plateau hill regions, Central Plateau hill regions, Western Plateau hill regions, Southern Plateau hill zone, East coast hill zone, West coast hill regions and Gujarat hill regions (Gupta et al., 2003). Control of light through polycover has become a significant part of horticulture technology because quality, intensity and duration of light is involved in many physiological processes of the plants. A plastic film or fibre glass covering over a green house acts like selective radiation filter which allows solar radiation to pass through but traps radiation emitted by the plants inside the greenhouse which is known as ‘Greenhouse effect’. Carbon dioxide released by the plants at night also trapped, this raises the level of CO₂ there by enhances the photosynthetic activity (Ahmed, 1996).

Ice cream has evolved from simple frozen preparations into a sophisticated food industry combining dairy science, food chemistry, refrigeration, microbiology, processing technology, packaging, and cold-chain management. This chapter introduces the historical development of ice cream and explains its transformation from a luxury product into a widely consumed frozen food. It examines the characteristics of the industry, major categories of ice cream and related frozen products, flavour classifications, composition, and quality characteristics. The chapter also presents the basic manufacturing process, important quality-control parameters, common manufacturing challenges, and emerging industry trends, providing a foundation for understanding ice cream as both a technical product and a commercial business.

In pigs, making a diagnosis of disease is no way different from that of other species. It is based on assessing the owner’s complaint, history of the farm and the ailing pig, signalment factors, detailed observations of the ailing pig, the other pigs in the group and their environment, detailed physical examination. These observation may lead to a provisional diagnosis. Further clinical tests, clinical pathology and a post-mortem examination of the dead pigs are to be taken up to confirm or refute the provisional diagnosis. Because pigs are kept in groups and owing to infectious nature of many diseases, the health of other pigs in the group should also be taken into account. History and General Examination General examination of swine is conducted without handling them. The physical examination of swine includes history taking, examination of environment, examination of group of swine, post mortem examination

Agriculture, also known as farming, is the production of food, fiber, animal feed, and other goods by means of growing and harvesting plants and animals. Agriculture is practiced throughout the world. Many agricultural products are used every day, from the clothes we put on in the morning to the sheets we sleep under at night. When you think of agriculture, think of the five F’s: food, fabric, forestry, farming, and flowers.

Agriculture is the science, art and industry of managing the growth of plants and animals to make use by human beings. In general, agriculture includes soil cultivation, growing and harvesting field crops, raising and breeding livestock, dairy and forest trees etc. The word agriculture is the English adaptation of Latin word i.e. agricultura, from ager, “a field” and cultura, “cultivation” in the strict sense of “tillage of the soil”. Thus, a literal reading of the word yields “tillage of a field/ fields”.

Beekeeping in India has a long-standing and diverse legacy, deeply embedded in traditional knowledge systems and rural livelihoods. References to honey collection are found in ancient texts like the Rigveda and Charaka Samhita, where honey was valued for its medicinal, spiritual, and culinary uses. Historically, tribal honey hunters collected wild honey from cliffs, tree hollows, and forest hives using time-tested, sustainable methods that honored the natural rhythms of bees. While these practices were rooted in indigenous wisdom, the shift to structured beekeeping—using man-made hives—began during colonial times and gained further momentum after independence.

The establishment of institutions such as the Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) in the 1950s and the Central Bee Research and Training Institute (CBRTI) in Pune played a pivotal role in promoting scientific beekeeping and offering formal training. In recent years, the focus has transitioned toward more natural and sustainable beekeeping models, especially within organic and natural farming frameworks.

Study of animal diseases at patient bed side for diagnosis, prognosis, monitoring and treatment comes under

a) Veterinary Epidemiology b) Preventive Medicine

c) Veterinary Jurisprudence d) Veterinary Clinical Medicine

The word “Veterinary” has originated from Latin “veter?n?rius” concerning draught animal and “Medicine” from Middle English, Middle French, Old French and Latin words meaning “healing”. Veterinary medicine is the offshoot of the medicine dealing with the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases/disorders of all animal species including domestic, wild and exotic, companion, draught and pack animals. CONTRIBUTION OF VETERINARY MEDICINE • Reduction in number of cases of tuberculosis and brucellosis in human. • Development of safe and effective vaccines to prevent and control of animal diseases such as Rinderpest, Foot and mouth, Hemorrhagic septicemia, Black quarter,  Pox, Parvo, Distemper,

Veterinary Clinical Medicine is a subset of Veterinary Medicine, and refers to study on animal diseases at the patient bed side for diagnosis, monitoring,
prognosis and treatment of the disease. The Veterinary Medicine is that branch of veterinary science that deals with diagnosis, treatment, prevention and control
of diseases, disorders and injury in domesticated, pet, wild, zoo, captive, freeliving animals and birds.

Artificial insemination (AI) is the technique of placing sperm into a female’s uterus (intrauterine), or cervix (intracervical) using artificial means rather than by natural copulation. Modern techniques for artificial insemination were first developed for the dairy cattle industry to allow many cows to be impregnated with the sperm of a bull with traits for improved milk production. It is the first generation reproductive biotechnology which has revolutionized the animal productivity. It has now been established as cheapest and fasted mode of genetic improvement of livestock. AI can be done using fresh semen, semen preserved at room temperature, refrigerated (4ºC) and cryopreserved (-196ºC) semen. The use of AI with frozen semen has become very popular and is being successfully used throughout the country.

Growing of flowers in gardens was patronized by the rulers themselves earlier. Commercial production of flowers gathered momentum globally, efforts to breed new varieties of flower crops intensified in the 70s, and 80s primarily due to their high commercial value. With the advent of WTO followed by the Plant Breeder’s Rights, the commercial breeding efforts got intensified further. Domestication, introduction, selection, hybridization, mutation, and polyploidy breeding have played a major role in the evolution of the present day ornamental plants.

4.1 Brief historical account

Flowers have long been associated with each civilization and culture in the world. Numerous cultures have incorporated flowers into their everyday lives expressions of beauty and art. Flowers are used to celebrate major life events and to decorate graves, expressing emotions in ways that words are deficient.

In the beginning, human kind selected some of the useful wild flowers and brought them into gardens for domestication. They were used for their floral and other values. According to Theophrastus (372-287 BC), carnation was grown in Greece during 300 BC. It was used for medicinal purpose in France. Romans prepared dye from calendula flowers. During early days, Bells of Ireland (Moluccella laevis) was used as a vegetable, but now after much improvement, it is used as a cut flower. The rose, which is an important flower today, has long history, perhaps older than man. Orchids were known for their attractive appearance and fragrance in China about 2500 years ago as mentioned by Confucius. Man’s interest in cultivating and growing orchids developed during the 19^th century in Europe. Chrysanthemum is the one of the oldest flower grown in China as early as 500 BC. Most of garden flowers were introduced into Europe from their wild habitats between 16^th and 19^th century. Ornamental annuals constitute an amazing group of plants widely grown in the parks and gardens in different seasons. The enchanting beauty of colour, shades, form and fragrance have made them an obvious choice for every garden. No other plant can influence the general landscape in such an incredible manner by riot of colours.

Introduction

The creation of first humane life forms has been evidenced since 4 million years ago. They were reportedly called hunter gathers and hunted animals and collected seeds and fruits from wild plants for their livelihood maintenance as food stuff. These nomadic people moved from one place to another place as they depleted the resources of an area. The trial-and-error experimentation and manipulation of species, the scene was set for domestication of plants and animals. In addition, these hunter-gatherer societies probably paved the way for domestication by developing the social structures (later on promoted to village organizations and cooperation) as well as knowledge of cultivation techniques (later on institutes and knowledge centre).

Early Farming (1650 & Before)

Around 12-10,000 years ago human being started farmingin search of food stuff for maintain their livelihood.

It was reported that the roots of farming began within the gift day of Turkey and Middle East the geographical region, referred to as Fertile Crescent of the geographical region. Cultivation and replantation involves the deliberate sowing or alternative management of plants, that don’t essentially take issue from wild populations. The beginning of farming is primarily associated with the domestications of several species; it involves genetic change of wild varieties through conscious or unconscious human selection, the start of farming is primarily related to the domestications of many species; it involves genetic amendment of untamed varieties through aware or unconscious human choice. 2 of the earliest settlements area unit referred to as Cata Huyuk and Jericho, as reported. Folks began to taking regarding wild grasses and mistreatment the seeds for food and planting for following year’s food. These seeds area unit currently referred to as cereals and compose an outsized proportion of the world’s food provide. Water was 1st primary demand of existence of life whereby Jericho, like several early cities was set around a uniform water supply, a spring that created over a thousand gallons each minute. Reportedly, around 2 to 3 thousand folks lived there. Farming of wheat, barley, peas, and lentils supported these folks were found there.

It is supposed that man was evolved on earth about 15 lakh years ago. This man started to move by standing erect on his feet and called Homo erectus L. Later the modern man was evolved called Homo sapiens L. (Sapiens means learning habit) due to his continuous learning habit. It is difficult to trace the exact period of beginning of agriculture. Archeological evidences indicated that, Agriculture started about 50,000 years ago.

Hunting was the primary source of food in olden days and was prevailed for long time. They obtained his food through domestication of some animals like dogs, horse, cow, buffalo etc. They live in the periphery of the forest and migrate from one place to another in search of food. It was not comfortable and they started enjoying by settling at one place near the river and started agricultural system.

Definition of Animal Breeding
Animal breeding, as the application of science to the genetic improvement of animals, implies a close inter relationship between theory and its application. Genetics has provided the matrix form which logical principles could be developed and tested by experimentation and practice.
During the 20th century, genetics has assumed a broader meaning and numerous subdivisions of the discipline has emerged. Advances in animal breeding also have drawn heavily on contributions from statistics, biochemistry, physiology, economics and other disciplines. Animal breeding and reproductive physiology have been uniquely interwoven.
Animals with superior genotypes cannot contribute to succeeding generations unless their reproductive capacity is maintained at satisfactory levels.
Livestock production is an economic enterprise. Hence, animal breeding recommendations must withstand the scrutiny of economic, as well as genetic considerations, before they are accepted and integrated into enterprises by breeders. As a consequence, a close relationship between the breeder and the science, application and theory has been nurtured.
History of Animal Breeding
• Till 500 A.D. when the fall of Roman Empire began animal breeding was at its esteem. Withthe fall of Roman Empire for about 1000 years called Dark and Middle Ages, animal husbandry was at a still.
• From 1700 A.D., again there was an improvement. The beginning of modern animal breeding is to be found mainly in England and Europe.
• The British Royalty encouraged horse breeding especially for race horses. The Earls and Dukes imported bulls from Holland and bred their native stocks. Dutch cattle were introduced into Hereford shire that laid the foundation of the present Hereford cattle. By crossing the native and Dutch cattle and subsequent inbreeding, the British cattle were improved far beyond the best.

Bioinformatics encompases the use of tools and techniques from three separate disciplines; molecular biology (the source of the data to be analyzed), computer science (supplies the hardware for running analysis and the networks to communicate the results), and the data analysis algorithms, which strictly define bioinformatics. So the list below incorporates events from these areas into a brief history of the field.

Abstract

This chapter provides a brief overview of the key milestones in the development of bioinformatics that would help to understand the historical context and evolution of a subject. As an interdisciplinary field, bioinformatics has grown gradually from molecular biology, with the development of various algorithms, databases, and other important tools that have helped to advance computational biology. Some important events in the history of bioinformatics might include the development of the first algorithms for sequence alignment and comparison, the creation of early databases such as GenBank and Swiss- Prot, and the development of software tools for molecular modeling and drug design. Other key milestones might include the sequencing of the first genomes, the development of high-throughput sequencing technologies, and the emergence of new areas of research such as systems biology and synthetic biology. By understanding the historical context of bioinformatics, students and researchers can gain a deeper appreciation for the current state of the field and the ongoing efforts to advance our understanding of the molecular mechanisms that underlie life.

Communication is a key to understand things between two people. Today’s communication is entirely different from pre-historic era and has taken many evolution throughout the years. Before alphabets, signs, symbols, letters and telephone evolved, communication was restricted to interpersonal interaction (i.e.) from one person to another in the form of gestures. It is in other terms called non-verbal communication. Today, communicating between two or more people has become too easy that one can communicate with more than 10 members at a time which is in technical means called conferencing.

The growth of internet has paved way for innumerable means of communica- tion. In other words it can be told as, communication is re-defined by technol- ogy. Texts, email, tweets, tele and video conferencing have widely saved much time of people and made them recipients of today’s fast moving world.

Preserving flowers dates back to earliest recorded history. The first evidence of use of dry flowers was when the bones of a pre historic man discovered in the Middle East were found with a mantle of delicate wild flowers. The pollen grains that remain indicated specific flowers that were used. During ancient times people used to freshen or enliven their rooms with fresh sweet smelling flowers. In the sixteenth century, when the Elizabethan Age was coming to a close, it was considered fashionable to wear silk flowers as part of one’s attire. These days flowers are dried and are versatile in their use. They supply us with food, medicines, ornaments and adornment. Flowers became essential for a fashionable appearance. Each civilization developed its own interpretation of flowers. Pressed flower art became popular in Victorian times. The Japanese use pressed plants and colorful papers to create Oshibana Art.

Insects came into existence in this world some 250 - 500 million years ago, while man appeared in this planet only about a million years ago and intruded into the domain of insects. From this time onwards, a rapport had started between the insects and man. Man considered insects obnoxious and not worth consideration in the early days. However, the real impact of insects on the activities of man became manifested to a greater extent only during the past few thousands of years. Gradually man began to understand the nature of insects and started looking at insects, both as his adversaries and as his beneficiaries. He started exploiting the useful insects for his own benefit and tried to destroy those, which are harmful to him.
 
There are numerous references in the ‘Ancient Epics’ and ‘Puranas’ such as, ‘Ramayana’, ‘Mahabharata’ etc. to show man’s acquaintance with insects even from very early days. Several references to insects are found in the ‘Holy Bible’ also. Ancient people of India were quite aware of insects, which provide honey, lac and silk. They were familiar with honeybees and gathering of honey and bee wax from hives. Honey was used in most of the religious rituals. Honey and bee wax were used in many Ayurvedic medicines against various diseases. The story of the lac palace constructed by the Cauravas to destroy the Pandavas by setting the wax palace on fire at night as narrated in Mahabharata is quite well known. The ancient Indians knew how to manufacture silk from silk thread produced by silkworms. Records show that an Indian king had sent some silken stuff to a Persian ruler even as early as in 3870 BC. References to insects such as, flies, beetles, bees, wasps, moths, ants etc. are found in old Sanskrit literature. The Ancient people also used some Mercury, Arsenic and Sulfur compounds for the control of some of the harmful insects. Numerous references to insects are found in the ‘Holy Bible’ also. King Solomon, the wise (971 BC), who ruled Israel had told his people to learn from the ways of ants, which are so active and orderly (‘Proverbs’, Chapter 6). He had mentioned as to how the ants gather and store food at the time of harvest, when food is available in plenty to be used in summer when food is scarce (‘Proverbs’, Chapter 30).

A. Answer the following questions

1.    Define feeding standards?

Ans: Feeding standards are the statements or quantitative descriptions of amounts of one or more nutrients needed by the animals or human.

2.    Limitation of feeding standard?

Ans: Palatability and physical nature of the ration are not included and does not included the environmental factors because environment may change the nutrient requirements.

3.    Write down the merits of ME system?

Ans: ME gives more correct result than DE or TDN. It is because energy losses in urine and GDP are corrected in ME system and ME is cheaper and easier to obtain than NE values.

4.    What is the purpose of following feeding standard?

A fish is defined as the cold blooded vertebrates, which catch with the help of gills and swims with the help of fins and which are aquatic in nature. In broader sense the term fishery is used for the rearing and management of all aquatic animals which are useful to human being e.g. fishes, crustaceans and mollusks. The term fishery science is related to the rearing and management of fish on large scale by proper utilization of available water sources.

Fishes comprise of about 33100 species (FishBase 2015) differing widely from each other in shape, size, habits and habitats. Some of them are very small or more than an inch in length, while a few attain a length up to 18.50 m. they live in all free flowing rivers, lake, canals, dams and in almost every place where there is water.

Fishes usually have a stream lined body but some are elongated snake like and a few are dorso-ventrally compressed. They have paired and unpaired fins supported by soft or spiny fin rays. Dorsal, caudal and the anal fins are unpaired while the pectorals and pelvic (ventral) are paired fins. A number of species possess barbless which are excellent organs of touch.

Silage is the material produced by controlled fermentation of forages or crop residues with high moisture content. The objective of silage making is to preserve the harvested forages by anaerobic fermentation in which soluble carbohydrates are converted into acids. Due to acid produced, pH of a well-ensiled product becomes so low that all life processes come to a halt and the material remain preserved so long as it remains in airtight storage. Soluble carbohydrate present in forage is converted to lactic acid which drops the pH to a level sufficient to inhibit any further biological activity in the ensiled forage mass (McDonald, 1991). Fresh forage crops, such as maize, grasses, legumes, wheat and Lucerne, can be preserved by ensiling. It is essential to have a good microbial fermentation process to produce high quality silage. Good silage is achieved by discouraging the activity of plant enzymes and undesirable micro-organisms and encouraging the dominance of lactic acid bacteria. A good fermentation process is not only dependent on the type and quality of the forage crop, but also on the harvesting and ensiling technique. Silage-making is a managemental tool that allows producers to match feed resources (forages, crop residues, agro-industrial byproducts, etc.) with feed demand for a dairy herd.

Origin of fruit culture can be traced back to 8000-5000 years ago and the horticultural practices like irrigation, vegetative propagation, selection etc. developed about 5000-3000 years back. The sophisticated fruit culture might have originated before 3000-2000 years. Basically all the cultivated fruits are the gift of diversity and not results of systematic breeding. Most of them have spread to different parts of the world through various media from the primary centres of origin.

Centres of origin of major fruit crops are as follows:

Mediterranean basin : datepalm, fig, grape, olive, pomegranate

East Asia : banana, citrus, mango, peach, kiwi fruit, persimmon

Central Asia: pome fruits, apricot

Europe : plum, raspberry

North and South America: avocado, black berry, papaya, pineapple, strawberry

The history of gardening dates back to the history of human civilization. In order to meet various utility purposes, primitive people used to grow plants initially. Some of them had beautiful flowers and drew attention. Gradually, the importance of growing flowers / ornamental plants for worshiping Gods and Goddesses came into existence. The need for growing plants for aesthetic purpose came much later. Development of formal gardens also initially confined to temples and, thereafter, attached to the residential places. Concept of developing parks and gardens for beautification purpose exclusively for public use came much later during 17^th century. With the influence of different regimes as prevailed in India time to time, the gardening styles and plants also changed a lot for fulfilling new taste and need of the people.

Gardens have played a very important role in development of nations of the world. In fact, humanity started its cultural development from a garden rememberd as ‘Garden of the Paradise’. Gardens always occupied a prime place in our social and cultural life. Every race has its own idea of gardening and the characters of the nation is expressed in its gardens and parks.

The status of gardening during ancient time has been presented in Ramayana, written by Valmiki. Ayodhya city was described as having wide streets, large houses, richly decorated temples and gardens. These gardens were planted with fruit trees and flowering plants and had lakes full of lotus (Nelumbo sp.) and different kinds of birds. During exile, Lord Rama and Sita are believed to have observed a number of trees and were fascinated by beautiful flowers; one of them was Sita Ashok (Saraca asoca).

Mahabharata, written by Saint Vyasa also contains description about gardens. During the Mahabharata era, pleasure gardens were planted with flowering plants. The famous tree of this era was Kadamba (Anthocephalus cadamba), which is associated with Lord Krishna.

The systematic gardening in India is as old as civilization of Indus of Harappa, which existed between 2400 B.C. and 1750 B.C. At that time, people were living in well-planned roads cut across one another almost at right angles. There are many evidences which prove that trees and ornamental plants were associated with the Harappan civilization. India has a long history of close association of people with flowering plants. It begins with the arrival of Aryans to India in 1600 B.C. They were literate people and brought with them the four Vedas viz., Rig veda, Atharva veda, Yazur veda and Sam veda and the Puranas. They appreciated the beauty of flowering plants, lakes, mountains, forests, etc. and named their children after flowers like Kamal, Champa, Bela, Chameli, Rukmani, etc. The followers of Hindu religion worship their Gods and Goddesses with flowers early in the morning.

The life of Lord Buddha was associated with a number of trees from birth to his Nirvana. He was born in 563 B.C. under the tree of Ashoka (Saraca asoca) at Lumbini. Further, Buddha attained his enlightenment under a Pipal (Ficus religiosa) tree, spread his new teachings under shady banyan and mango trees and breathed his last in a Sal (Shorea robusta) grove.

When Lord Buddha visited Vaishali, Amrapali presented a park known as Amravana which was dominated by flowering trees. Buddhists were planting trees and flowering plants on a large scale for making surrounding peaceful and place ideal for meditation.

The history of genetics dates from the classical era with contributions by Hippocrates, Aristotle and Epicurus. Modern biology began with the work of the Augustinian friar Gregor Johann Mendel. His work on pea plants, published in 1866, what is now Mendelian inheritance. Some theories of heredity suggest in the centuries before and for several decades after Mendel›s work. The year 1900 marked the “rediscovery of Mendel” by Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns and Erich von Tschermak, and by 1915 the basic principles of Mendelian genetics had been applied to a wide variety of organisms—most notably the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. Led by Thomas Hunt Morgan and his fellow «drosophilists», geneticists developed the Mendelian model, which was widely accepted by 1925. Alongside experimental work, mathematicians developed the statistical framework of population genetics, bringing genetic explanations into the study of evolution.
With the basic patterns of genetic inheritance established, many biologists turned to investigations of the physical nature of the gene. In the 1940s and early 1950s, experiments pointed to DNA as the portion of chromosomes (and perhaps other nucleoproteins) that held genes. A focus on new model organisms such as viruses and bacteria, along with the discovery of the double helical structure of DNA in 1953, marked the transition to the era of molecular genetics.
In the following years, chemists developed techniques for sequencing both nucleic acids and proteins, while others worked out the relationship between the two forms of biological molecules: the genetic code. The regulation of gene expression became a central issue in the 1960s; by the 1970s gene expression could be controlled and manipulated through genetic engineering. In the last decades of the 20th century, many biologists focused on large-scale genetics projects, sequencing entire genomes.
Pre Mendelian Ideas on Heredity
Diagram of Charles Darwin’s pangenesis theory. Every part of the body emits tiny particles, gemmules, which migrate to the gonads and contribute to the fertilised egg and so to the next generation. The theory implied that changes to the body during an organism’s life would be inherited, as proposed in Lamarckism. Mendel’s work

The homoeopathic system of medicine is one of the finest systems of cure available in the world. It achieves in totality the ideal laid down by its founder, Dr. Samuel Hahnemann:

"The highest ideal of cure is rapid, gentle and permanent restoration of the health, or removal and annihilation oftlie disease in its whole extent, in the shortest, most reliable, and most harmless way, on easily compreltensible principles".

In homoeopathy, not a single drug is used without knowing its effect on healthy human beings. Hence there is no shooting in the dark. The system operates, by and large, without laboratory tests and other expensive means of diagnosis, which are being used when not needed and that too, unfortunately on patients who can hardly afford the expenses.

Cost wise, there is no medical system in tlie world, which is as inexpensive as homoeopathy. No patient who requires a speedy cure without side effects can ignore homoeopathy; no doctor who has nothing but the good of his patient at heart can overlook the utility and effectiveness of homoeopathy and no Government which has to balance its budget can afford not to use homoeopathy in hospitals and other institutions run for the health and care of the sick and thus it is the most cost effective treatment

The discovery of homoeopathic system of medicine makes a fascinating story.

Origin of systematics is as old as Vedas (1500 BC), Ramayana (1900 BC), Mahabharat (1400 BC) and Upanisad (350 BC) in which mention had been made about various animals.

History of Insect Classification

Linnaeus (1758-1766) in the 12th edition of Systema Naturae, divided insects into 9 orders

1. Coleoptera (earwigs – Dermeptera).

2. Orthoptera.

3. Hemiptera.

4. Lepidoptera.

5. Neuroptera (ant lion, Sialis, termites and dragon flies).

6. Hymenoptera

7. Diptera.

8. Thysanoptera.

9. Aptera (wingless insects, spiders, scorpions, terrestrial crustacians and Myriapods).

Introduction

The history of Integrated Pest Control goes back much farther than the mere coining of the term in the early fifties and the subsequent elaboration and clarification of the concept. The origins are deeply rooted in the evolution of pest control practices as developed by Entomologists and Plant Pathologists in the Nineteenth Century.

Human history is a series of attempts to gain increasing control over the environment. At first this control was minimal to the degree that poor shelter and unstable food supplies imposed severe population constraints. The gradual gain in man’s capacity to control his environment parallels the gradual rise of civilization. But as man aggregated into villages near rivers and planted crops near by, he encountered increasingly severe attacks by pests on the crops. For thousands of years, man could do nothing about these pests but appeal to the power of magic and a variety of gods. For the most part, early humans had to live with and tolerate the ravages of plant diseases and insects, but gradually they learned how to improve their conditions through “trial and error” experiences. These improvements included the beginnings of pest control or pest management, the most preferred term today.