eChapters

Dairy equipment and utensils with which milk and milk products come into contact are the main sources of contamination in the products. By the use of effective equipment cleaning and sterilization methods on routine basis, milk of high bacteriological quality can be consistently produced. In composite milk plant, a variety of equipment and utensils are used. The use of stainless steel for the fabrication of dairy utensils and equipment provide highly polished and hard smooth surface that can be cleaned readily, apart from showing resistance to corrosive action of detergents and bactericidal solutions. Utmost care is taken to avoid dents and scratches, which could be the possible focal points of subsequent contamination. To overcome all these problems aluminium and stainless steel vessels and equipment present an ideal situation.

Abstracts

To ensure safe food and adequate sanitation programs, the equipment used for processing of food products must be designed, fabricated, constructed, and installed according to sound hygienic design principles. This ensures the equipment can be adequately cleaned and sanitized, and that surfaces are resistant to daily exposure to corrosive food products and cleaning/sanitizing chemicals. This chapter focuses primarily on fundamental principles of hygienic design, which protect the product from microbial, chemical, and foreign-body contamination. This is followed by a discussion of general aspects of hygienic construction and design of food equipments, the selection of materials of construction and specification of surface finishes, fabrication, installation and cleaning and sanitization. Quality of raw materials or foods ingredients, proper processing, packaging and storage of finished products decides the quality of the food products. Planning for plant and equipment layout, its design, services (water, air, refrigeration, steam), waste disposal etc. are some of the critical factors, which contributes to quality. In addition, the food processing equipment must comply with strict standards and regulations, which are necessary for securing the quality and safety of the food products to the consumers.

Fresh fish serves as a protein-rich food for people of all income groups. Dry fish is in greater demand when the availability of fresh fish in the market is low. Dry fish have a higher concentration of protein (in terms of weight) as compared to wet fish and are an inexpensive source of animal protein. Moreover, dry fish production provides employment opportunities to fishermen, fish farmers, rural youth, and women and also helps them to generate extra income. In addition, it also provides food and nutritional security to the rural, underprivileged population. Though dry fish enterprises have a significant role in improving the livelihood as well as the nutritional security of society, not much attention has been paid to the production and marketing of dry fish products.

The Concept of ‘Clean Milk’ Production

Although milk is nature’s most ideal and perfect single food both for the newborn and the mature human beings, the possibility of it being a source of biological and chemical hazards cannot be excluded. In view of the immense dietary importance of milk, the need for production of safe, clean and wholesome milk is emphasized. The term ‘clean milk’ does not mean milk in which all visible dirt is absent or milk from which it has been removed; rather it does denote raw milk from healthy animals, that has been produced and handled under hygienic conditions; that contains only small number of harmless bacteria and that possesses a good keeping quality without being treated by heat. In other words, the unhygienic production of milk may lead to inferior keeping quality as a result of rapid microbial multiplication under favourable storage conditions apart from serving as a potential health hazard. These microorganisms cause the milk to sour quickly, putrefy and develop undesirable flavours, colour defects, ropiness and bitterness. On the other hand, the pathogenic microorganisms, which may gain entry through various sources, may cause many diseases to the consumers.

The ruminoreticulum, part of the ruminant digestive system, plays a pivotal role in food processing, fermentation and nutrient absorption in animals such as cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, and deer. This compartmentalized stomach, comprising the rumen and reticulum, is critical for fermentative digestion, enabling ruminants to utilize fibrous plant materials. While its normal function is essential for health and productivity, hyperactivity of the ruminoreticulum can significantly impact an animal’s well-being, physiology, and economic value in agricultural contexts.
Structure and function of the ruminoreticulum
The ruminoreticulum is a fermentation chamber harbouring billions of microorganisms, including bacteria, protozoa, and fungi. It is designed to break down complex carbohydrates, such as cellulose and hemicellulose, into volatile fatty acids (VFAs), which provide a significant portion of a ruminant’s energy. The coordinated motility of the rumen and reticulum ensures proper mixing of ingested feed with saliva and microbes, enhancing fermentation efficiency.
Rhythmic contractions of the ruminoreticulum known as primary and secondary cycles, aid in mixing, stratification of digesta, and eructation of fermentation gases. When these contractions increase in frequency or intensity beyond physiological norms, it constitutes hyperactivity of the ruminoreticulum.

This chapter explores the four types of hypersensitivity reactions described under the Gell and Coombs classification. Type I immediate hypersensitivity, Type II cytotoxic reactions, Type III immune-complex disease and Type IV delayed hypersensitivity are examined in detail. The roles of IgE, mast cells, basophils, antibodies, complement and T lymphocytes are highlighted. Clinical examples include anaphylaxis, milk allergy, haemolytic disease, transfusion reactions, serum sickness, glomerulonephritis, farmer’s lung and the blue-eye condition associated with canine hepatitis. Diagnostic applications, including the tuberculin and Coombs tests, are also addressed. The chapter explains how exaggerated or inappropriate immune responses can damage tissues and produce disease.

The immune system has been designed to provide protection to the body from various diseases. But the same system which is aimed to provide protection may sometimes become harmful to the body and may even life-threatening. There are situations when immune response against harmless and inert antigens is exaggerated and actually causes diseases. Such a condition is called hypersensitivity or commonly as allergy. Though the term ‘hypersensitivity’ indicates an increased response but the immune response is not always heightened, instead it may be an inappropriate response to an antigen.

The basic purpose of the immune system is to provide defense to the body from various types of infections. But, sometimes, the system which is aimed to provide protection become damaging or even life-threatening. There are situations when immune response against harmless and inert antigens is exaggerated and cause diseases.

Definition

Hypersensitivity is an altered reaction to a specific antigen that results in pathologic reactions upon the exposure of a sensitized host to that of specific antigen.

Explanation

Hypersensitivity reactions are inappropriate or misdirected responses to a specific antigen that result in harmful reactions upon exposure of a sensitized host to that specific antigen.

Affected animals require a sensitization phase in which the animal must have had either a previous exposure or a prolonged exposure to the antigen so that it can develop an immune response to the inciting antigen.

The harmful effects resulting from hypersensitivity reactions occur in the effector phase and are most commonly manifested through inflammation or cell lysis.

ABSTRACT

This paper reviews the various application of hyperspectral remote sensing data carried out by the scientists of India emphasizing its advantages.

1. INTRODUCTION

The most significant recent breakthrough in remote sensing has been the development of hyperspectral sensors. The ‘Hyper’ in hyperspectral means ‘too many’ and refers to the large number of measured wavelength bands. Hyperspectral images are spectrally over determined, which means that they provide ample spectral information to identify and distinguish spectrally unique materials. Hyperspectral imagery provides the potential for more accurate and detailed information, extraction than is possible with any other type of conventional remotely sensed data.

Imaging spectroscopy (Goetz et al., 1985) in hyperspectral imaging is concerned with the measurement, analysis, and interpretation of spectra acquired from a given scene (or specific object) at a short, medium or long distance by an airborne or satellite sensor. The concept of imaging spectroscopy originated in the 1980's, when A. F. H. Goetz and his colleagues at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory began a revolution in remote sensing by developing new instruments such as the Airborne Imaging Spectrometer (AIS), then called AVIRIS, for Airborne Visible Infra-Red Imaging Spectrometer (Green et al., 1998). This system is now able to cover the wavelength region from 0.4 to 2.5 μm using more than two hundred spectral channels, at nominal spectral resolution of 10 nm. The special characteristics of hyperspectral datasets pose different processing problems, which must be necessarily tackled under specific mathematical formalisms, such as classification and segmentation (Jia et al., 1999, Green, R 1998) and spectral mixture analysis (Adams et al., 1986; Smith et al., 1990a, b).

ABSTRACT

In earth system about 60% of the world's population live within 60 km of coastline and use the coastline for their livelihood. Environmental pollution of the coast, inshore water and deep ocean is one of the important topical issues in the context of human health and global warming. To combat this natural and man made problem, we have to rely on qualitative analysis quantitatively. In the recent advancement in information and technology field, spectral data plays a major dominant role in the environmental studies. This could provide more powerful and accessible means to exploit the enormous wealth of data available in the system. The high-resolution imaging spectrometry (hyperspectral imagery) will help to analyze the data for mapping and other environmental modeling applications. This could attain advanced approaches to deduce surface characteristics and extract features from hyperspectral images. The current capabilities are in which, the prototype system can classify pixels according to surface type. The classification process employs neural network analysis of inputs which include pixel spectra and a variety of processed image metrics, including image “texture spectra” derived from fractal signatures computed for sub image tiles at each wavelength. Thus, this kind of technical analysis can prove to achieve coastal area studies well in advance in the ongoing environmental changes more precisely.

ABSTRACT

Multispectral imagery has been used as the data source for natural resource mapping and land observational remote sensing from airborne and satellite systems since the early 1960s. Over the past two decades, advances in sensor technology have made it possible for the collection of several hundred spectral bands. This is commonly refe rred to as hyperspectral imagery. Thus it is possible to construct a complete reflectance spectrum of every pixel in the scene. This review highlights the hyperspectral remote sensing system development, hyper spectral data processing and difference between multispectral and hyperspectral data; spatial and spectral resolutions and focuses on the application of hyperspectral imagery in natural resource studies and, in particular the classification and mapping of land resources.

ABSTRACT

Remote sensing has undergone tremendous development in past decades. Hyperspectral imaging refers to the imaging of a scene over a large number of discrete, narrow contiguous spectral bands in the visible through thermal infrared portion of the spectrum. Thus it is possible to construct a complete reflectance spectrum of every pixel in the scene.

Classification of hyperspectral image requires thorough understanding of surface material properties, sensor characteristics and atmospheric absorption spectra. The reflectance spectra of most materials on the Earth's surface contain diagnostic absorption features. Remote sensors, capable of acquiring complete reflectance spectra over large areas, offer a powerful tool to study of the Earth and the environment. Methods are being developed to extract information from remote sensing data using image-processing approaches. Specific absorption features of reflectance spectrum can be used to identify a number of important rock forming minerals, and have been used by geologists for geologic mapping and studies of volcanoes.

The present discussion includes an application of thermal characteristics of near- IR bands of Landsat TM to estimate the temperature of over and around the crater of Barren Island volcano in 1991. A method using dual band temperature characteristics related to radiant source of sub-pixel size was developed and utilized to prepare temperature contour map of the Island using unsaturated pixels of band 5 and 7.

ABSTRACT

Over the last decade, hyperspectral remote sensing has become a powerful analysis tool for applications in environment and ecology, aquaculture, forestry, agriculture, and geoscience. A hyperspectral imagers advantage over broadband sensors, such as Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) and the SPOT Haute Resolution Visible (HRV) sensor series, is its ability to detect molecular absorption and particle scattering signatures of constituents. The finer spectral resolution of a hyperspectral imager allows detection of surface materials and their abundances, as well as inferences of biological and chemical processes. This review highlights the vast extent to which hyperspectral technology and their application with special reference to ocean have been discussed.

ABSTRACT

Mineral composition and their distribution on planetary surfaces provides important clues to the evolutionary processes that the planetary bodies have undergone since their formation. For distant and inaccessible planets, remote sensing, either from Earth-based telescopes or from an orbiter around the planetary body, using reflectance spectroscopy over a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum (UV-Visible-IR), can provide surface distribution of minerals. With advances in technology, a high-resolution hyperspectral imager onboard an orbiter has developed into a powerful tool for compositional mapping of planetary surfaces. Interpretation of the signals from these distant and relatively unknown destinations is a challenging task due to scarcity of available ground truth. Here, we describe the technique with its applicability to airless bodies, such as Moon, in the context of the Indian Moon mission, Chandrayaan-1, and, the intricacies involved in the data analyses.

Keywords : Reflectance spectroscopy, hyperspectral data, remote sensing, planets, moon

1. INTRODUCTION

The primary goal of planetary exploration is to understand the mechanism by which planetary objects (planets, dwarf planets, satellites and small solar system bodies) have evolved with time. The information gathered from the study of individual bodies is integrated to comprehend the development of our solar system. The present understanding envisages our solar system to have formed from the solar nebula, produced as a consequence of the collapse of a molecular cloud. While the central mass gravitated and formed the sun, the gas and dust surrounding it condensed to form grains and formed the proto-planetary disk. These grains, through a series of processes, finally aggregated to form of the various planetary bodies. Existing Astronomical, chemical and mineralogical evidences from studies of lunar samples, meteorites and, remote sensing observations suggest that the planetary bodies are heterogeneous and possess extreme compositional and morphological diversity. The internal energy of a planetary body, a function of its size, is responsible for the differences in the degree of differentiation a body has undergone leading to the variations in their surface composition. Large planets like the Earth and Venus are still evolving whereas the small asteroids have barely evolved after their formation and are considered primitive. The wide variety of planetary bodies in our solar system is therefore reminiscent of the various stages of evolution that our solar system went through. The degree of melting and cycling through episodes of differentiation determine the mineral inventory on a planetary body. Therefore, distribution and composition of various minerals can be used to understand various stages of chemical evolution of a planetary body. Mineral mapping of planetary surfaces is thus useful in understanding the petrogenetic history.

ABSTRACT

This paper is an attempt to highlight the problems of coastal environmental impact assessment owing to logistic constraints, costs of analytical data generation, time gap between data generation and interpretation, quantum of physical and chemical data required for assessment of environmental data through conventional methods and to examine the potential of hyperspectral remote sensing as an alternative for conventional methods. As hyperspectral remote sensing is non-destructive, offers repetitivity and high resolution (spatial and spectral) and hyper-sensitive to many physical and chemical properties of coastal soils and minerals, we recommend use of hyperspectral remote sensing for reduction of cost and man-hours in coastal environmental assessment, without compromising the quality of data.

ABSTRACT

Hyperspectral image reduction processes use only information drawn from knowledge related to the surface reflectance properties. The chemical composition and crystal structure control the shape of spectral curve, position and amplitude of absorption bands. Spectral database provide a source of reference spectra useful in classification of hyperspectral images.

An attempt has been made to put all such available data on a structured database for easy access and visualization. A Web-based interface for reference spectra of natural surfaces facilitates data sharing and increases access to reference material for classification.

1. INTRODUCTION

Hyperspectral imaging refers to the imaging of a scene over a large number of discrete, narrow contiguous spectral bands in the visible through thermal infrared portion of the spectrum. Thus it is possible to construct a complete reflectance spectrum of every pixel in the scene.

Field spectroscopy is a nondestructive way to collect information on natural resources and is becoming a common exercise in remote sensing field campaigns. Specific absorption features of reflectance spectrum can be used to identify a number of important rock forming minerals, and have been used by geologists for geologic mapping and studies of volcanoes. Spectral database provide a source of reference spectra useful in classification of hyperspectral images.

Key Points

• Physical cooling is more effective in managing hyperthermia.

• Heat stroke occurs when the cause is solely physical.

Introduction

Hyperthermia is an unusually high body temperature (also known as overheating) caused by the body absorbing or producing more heat than it can discharge. Simply said, it is the increase in temperature above the critical point. Heat stroke is most common in animals when they lose control of their body temperature.

Hyperthermia is a condition in which an animal’s body temperature rises above the normal range, often due to excessive environmental heat or a failure in the body’s thermoregulation mechanisms. Unlike fever, where the body actively increases its temperature in response to infection, hyperthermia results from external or internal factors that overwhelm the body’s ability to dissipate heat. This condition is life-threatening and requires prompt recognition and treatment to prevent severe organ damage or death.
The normal body temperature of animals varies across species. For example, dogs and cats typically maintain a body temperature of 101°F to 102.5°F, while livestock like horses and cattle have average temperatures of around 99°F to 101.5°F. Hyperthermia occurs when the body temperature exceeds these ranges, potentially leading to heat exhaustion or heatstroke.
Types of hyperthermia
1. Heat stress/ heat exhaustion: A mild to moderate rise in temperature, accompanied by symptoms like panting, lethargy, or drooling.
2. Heatstroke: A severe and potentially fatal rise in body temperature that causes multi-organ dysfunction or failure.
Causes of hyperthermia
Hyperthermia in animals can occur due to various factors:
1. Environmental heat: Prolonged exposure of animals to high temperatures especially in humid conditions where evaporative cooling (panting or sweating) is less effective. Being left in hot cars or confined
spaces without adequate ventilation.
2. Physical overexertion: Excessive exercise or work, particularly in hot weather, can lead to hyperthermia. Breeds with thick coats or brachycephalic (flat-faced) animals like Bulldogs and Persian cats are
especially prone due to reduced cooling efficiency.

Hypocalcaemia, commonly referred to as milk fever, is a metabolic disorder in dairy animals, particularly high-producing cows, that occurs due to low calcium levels in the blood (serum calcium less than 8 mg/dl in cows). It predominantly affects animals in the peri-parturient period, as the demand for calcium for colostrum and milk synthesis outpaces the body’s ability to maintain adequate blood calcium levels. The disorder not only affects animal welfare but also results in significant economic losses due to reduced milk production, fertility issues, and increased veterinary costs. Nutritional management plays a pivotal role in preventing and controlling milk fever, making it a key focus for dairy farmers and veterinarians.
Hypocalcaemia in specific species
1. Ruminants (Cattle, Buffalo, Sheep, and Goats)
Milk fever (Peri-parturient hypocalcaemia): Commonly affects dairy animals around calving.
2. Small animals (Dogs and Cats) Eclampsia (Puerperal tetany): Seen in lactating bitches and queens. It results from excessive calcium loss through milk. Clinical signs: Restlessness, panting, and muscle tremors, tetany, seizures, and hyperthermia if untreated.

Introduction

Hypoglycemia Spiking mortality syndrome is a disease in broilers, characterized by low mortality with sudden onset of high mortality. The affected birds are clinically hypoglycemic.

There is no known aetiology.

Key Points

• Hypothermia occurs when an individual's body temperature drops below its critical level.

• Excessive heat loss or inadequate thermoregulation can lead to this condition.

• It can be minor or severe. Mild hypothermia is harmless, while moderate to severe hypothermia is an emergency.

Hypothermia is a life-threatening condition that occurs when an animal’s body loses heat faster than it can produce it, causing its core temperature to drop below normal levels. Animals, like humans, rely on maintaining a stable internal temperature to function. This condition can affect pets, livestock, and wildlife, and understanding its causes, effects, and treatment is critical for their survival and well-being. In animals, body temperature varies by species. For example, the average temperature for dogs and cats ranges from 101°F to 102.5°F, while for livestock like cows, it is around 101.5°F. Hypothermia occurs when their body temperature falls below these ranges, impairing physiological processes and potentially leading to organ failure.
Stages of hypothermia
Mild hypothermia: A slight drop in body temperature, with symptoms like shivering, lethargy, and a cold nose or extremities. Moderate hypothermia: A significant temperature drop that can result in muscle stiffness, weak pulse, and slowed breathing.
Severe hypothermia: Critical condition where the animal may lose consciousness, and the heart rate and breathing slow dramatically, potentially leading to death.

6.1. INTRODUCTION

The word hypothesis is made up of two words Hypo + thesis = Hypothesis. ‘Hypo’ means tentative or subject to the verification and ‘Thesis’ means statement about solution of a problem.

The world meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of the problem. Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and based on some rationale. Hypothesis is the composition of some variables which have some specific position or role of the variables i.e. to be verified empirically. It is a proposition about the factual and conceptual elements. Hypothesis is called a leap into the dark. It is a brilliant guess about the solution of a problem. A tentative generalization or theory formulated about the character of phenomena under observation are called hypothesis. It is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is known at the time about the phenomena. It is the basis for planning and action in the research for new truth.

True/False

Q.1.    Qualitative or categorical data are frequently collected in medical investigation.
Q.2.    Qualitative variables may be, e.g. sex, blood type, treatment, groups, classification of exposure or disease and patients survived or not.
Q.3.    Qualitative variables include the grouped quantitative variables such as age groups of mothers, pre term babies, birth weight groups, 
hypertensive or normotensive etc.

Before trying to understand Hypothesis Testing and Experimental Designs, we should be conversant with the concept of Probability Distribution.

5.1 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS

Let us look at an example to grasp the essence of a probability distribution. Let us rotate a pair of dice and observe the sum by totalling the numbers that turn upon in both the dice. Let us call this sum by a random variable X. When the first dice shows up number 1, the second dice could show 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. Likewise, when the first dice shows up number 2, the second dice could show 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. If we continue the experiment this way until all the possibilities are exhausted, the sample space will contain 36 elements. The distribution that can be observed will contain a sum = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, or 12. The starting sum will be = 2, because when both the dice show the number 1, the sum 1 + 1 = 2. Likewise, the maximum sum in the distribution will be 12, when both the dice show up a number 6. If we write the values of the random variable (sum) with associated probabilities, it is called a probability distribution.

We can categorize statistical theory into two general parts.

1. Firstly, there is descriptive statistics which uses the appropriate tools, typically tables, diagrams and/or numerical measures, to describe a data set and provide a summary of its distribution.

2. In addition, there is inferential statistics which is concerned with drawing conclusions about a population using information obtained from a representative sample selected from it.

(a) One aspect of statistical inference is the estimation of a population parameter by the appropriate sample statistic (e.g. the population mean by the sample mean).

(b) The second aspect of inferential statistics is hypothesis testing. In this case, we examine a hypothesis, framed in terms of the parameters in one or more populations.

Estimation is concerned with description whereas hypothesis testing is ultimately concerned with decision.

Basic concepts of hypothesis testing

Hypothesis testing is a process that is concerned with making conclusions about the population using the information obtained from its sample.

10.1 Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
i) Understand the concept and types of hypotheses in hypothesis testing;
ii) Differentiate between one-tailed and two-tailed tests and recognize their applications;
iii) Grasp the implications of Type I and Type II errors in hypothesis testing;
iv) Explore the significance level and its connection to confidence limits;
v) Understand the concept of degrees of freedom in hypothesis testing;
vi) Familiarize yourself with the stepwise approach to hypothesis testing for effective application.

10.2 Introduction

In this chapter, we explore the fundamental concept of hypothesis testing, a cornerstone in statistical analysis. We begin by exploring the nature of hypotheses and their types, distinguishing between one-tailed and two-tailed tests and understanding their respective applications. We then explain the intricacies of Type I and Type II errors, crucial pitfalls to avoid in hypothesis testing. Additionally, we probe into the significance level, its relationship to confidence limits, and its role in determining the strength of our conclusions. Furthermore, we explain the concept of degrees of freedom, an essential factor in hypothesis testing that affects the reliability of our results. Finally, we guide you through a stepwise approach to hypothesis testing, ensuring a comprehensive understanding and effective application of these concepts in practical scenarios. Through this journey, you will not only grasp the mechanics but also appreciate the profound impact of hypothesis testing in drawing meaningful conclusions from data in our data-driven society.

Hypothesis testing provides a statistical framework for making inferences about populations from sample observations obtained through random experiments. This chapter introduces the scientific logic underlying statistical hypotheses and explains the formulation of null and alternative hypotheses. It discusses one-tailed and two-tailed tests, levels of significance, Type I and Type II errors, sampling distributions, test statistics, critical regions, p-values, and decision-making. The chapter also explains statistical significance and the interpretation of test results. Applications of Student’s t-test and related procedures are illustrated through forestry and biological examples, enabling researchers to determine whether observed differences between means can reasonably be attributed to treatments rather than random sampling variation.

Key Points

• Patient assessment is only half of the disease diagnosis process.

• Using animal physiological values as a reference point can help measure a patient's health.

• Laboratory results support the patient's evaluation results.

• Patient evaluation findings suggest bodily system involvement.

Introduction

The patient assessment includes the owner's complaint, history, physical examination, and clinical examination of the animals (Fig. 1.1). Proper animal assessment is only part of the illness diagnosis process. Sometimes, evaluation results can be indicative of a medical condition. As a result, at the initial stage, assessing the animal aids in making a confirmation diagnosis. Given its significance, an assessment of the animal must be performed or obtained before concluding the laboratory finding, if available. Assessment can be conducted in several steps, each of which is detailed in the next paragraph. The physiological vital parameters of animals are crucial reference points to conclude the evaluation findings.

Abstract

Information and communications technology (ICT) is an extended term for information technology (IT) which stresses the role of unified communications and the integration of telecommunications (telephone lines and wireless signals), computers as well as necessary enterprise software, middleware, storage, and audio-visual systems, which enable users to access, store, transmit, and manipulate information.

The term ICT is also used to refer to the convergence of audio-visual and telephone networks with computer networks through a single cabling or link system. There are large CoymeBoang incentives (huge cost savings due to elimination of the telephone network) to merge the telephone network with the computer network system using a single unified system of cabling, signal distribution and management.

However, ICT has no universal definition, as “the concepts, methods and applications involved in ICT are constantly evolving on an almost daily basis.” The broadness of ICT covers any product that will store, retrieve, manipulate, transmit or receive information electronically in a digital form, e.g. personal computers, digital television, email, robots. For clarity, Zuppo provided an ICT hierarchy where all levels of the hierarchy “contain some degree of commonality in that they are related to technologies that facilitate the transfer of information and various types of electronically mediated communications.” Skills Framework for the Information Age is one of many models for describing and managing competencies for ICT professionals for the 21st century.

Keywords: ICT Tools, Gadgets, Software, Apps, Networking Technologies.

Q. 1 Which option about the statements made below is correct?
(1) The cooling system maintains engine temperature at 71 to 82ºC for petrol engines.
(2) The thermostat valve begins to open at about 60oC and opens widely at about 71ºC.
(A) Statement (1) is true, but statement (2) is false.
(B) Statement (2) is true, but statement (1) is false.
(C) Both statements (1) and (2) are true.
(D) Both Statements (1) and (2) are false.

A hunting governor is ……….
(A) Less sensitive       (B) More sensitive
(C) More stable           (D) None of these is correct

Ice nucleation: It is a process of reducing the formation of ice crystal under freezing stress, by some polysaccharides and proteins known as ice nucleators.

Imbibitions: It is a special type of diffusion when water is absorbed by solids-colloids-causing them to enormously increase in volume. The classical examples of imbibition are absorption of water by seeds and dry wood.

Immobile elements: The elements which get translocated slower inside the plant are called immobile elements. Examples: Ca, Fe and B.

Immunoassay: This is very sensitive method of identifying and or quantifying the hormones and other molecules which has antigen and antibody interaction.

Indeterminate growth: Plant growth in which the main stem continues to elongate indefinitely without being limited by a terminal inflorescence or other reproductive structure; also growth is characterized by sequential flowering from the lateral or basal buds to the central or uppermost buds.

Indole -3 acetic acid: It is naturally occurring auxin responsible for cell elongation, apical dominance and other physiological functions of auxins.

Induced dormancy: Induced dormancy in which dormancy develops as a response to external environmental factors.

Iberis amara L. (Brassicaceae): Eng.- Candy Tuft [NI]. Half hardy annual ornamental herb. Leaves light green, lanceolate. Flowers borne in corymbs of light fragrant flowers, ranging in colour from white through pink to red purple.

Illuminative evaluation: The primary concern of illuminative or holistic evaluation is a description and interpretation rather than measurement and prediction of the totality of a phenomenon. It fits with the social–anthropological paradigm. The aim is to study a programme in all its aspects: how it operates, how it is influenced by various contexts, how it is applied, how those directly involved view its strengths and weaknesses, and what the experiences are of those who are affected by it.

Ice bank cooling: Storing of fruit and vegetable in storage chamber with positive ventilation and system countries where ice formation is allowed during night time (as electricity cost of night is less as compared to the day time). Melting of ice occurs during day time and with proper air circulation by means of ventilation process, approximately 0.5 10C temperature with 90% RH in the chamber is maintained. Ice Bank Cooler / Air forced cooler leads to desiccation of the produce (Plate 359). So use forced air high humidity cooler and these are known as Ice Bank Cooler. Ice bank coolers are useful for strawberry.

Ice cream: Ice cream may be define as frozen dairy product made by suitable blending and processing of cream and other milk products together with sugar and flavour.

Ice cream cone: A thin crisp edible cone for holding ice cream and filled with ice cream.

Ice point: It is the temperature of equilibrium between ice and water under normal atmospheric pressure (Plate 360).

Ichthylogy: It is the branch of the zoology that deals with the study of fishes (Pisces).

Icicle: It is small tapering piece of the ice formed by freezing of dropping water (Plate 361).

1. The share of agriculture and allied activities in India’s GDP at constant prices in 2008-09   was:

 a) 15.1% b) 17.1%

 c) 21.6% d) 24.0%

 2. The total area under transgenic crop in India during 2008-09 was:

 a) 4.4 million ha b) 6.4 million ha

 c) 8.4 million ha d) 10.4 million ha

 3. Fertilizer consumption in India during 2009-10 was:

 a) 128 kg/ha b) 138 kg/ha

 c) 148 kg/ha d) 158 kg/ha

 4. The genome of which of the following crops is still not completely sequenced?

 a) Rice b) Aerabidopsis

 c) Papaya d) Wheat

1. Which of the following crops have been approved for commercial cultivation in India?

Bt cotton and Bt brinjal

Bt cotton and Golden Rice

Bt maize and Bt. cotton

Bt cotton only

2.

The expected food grain production in India for the year 2010-11 was:

212 million tonnes

220 million tonnes

235 million tonnes

250 million tones

1. Who is the present Chairman of Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Right Authority (PPV&ERA)?

Dr. R.R. Hanchinal

Dr. P.L. Gautam

Dr. S. Nagarajan

Dr. Swapan K. Datta

2. Which among the following is another name of vitamin B12?

Niacin

Pyridoxal phosphate

Cobalamin

Riboflavin

1. DD Kisan was launched on:

 a) 23 May 2015 b) 26 May 2015

 c) 29 May 2015 d) 16 May 2015

 2. UN General Assembly declared 2015 as:

 a) International Year of Soil

 b) International Year of Pulses

 c) International Year of Sustainable Agri.

 d) International Year of Family Farming

 3. As per the advance estimates for 2014-15, the total food grain production in the country is estimated at:

 a) 247 million tonnes b) 253 million tonnes

 c) 257 million tonnes d) 264 million tonnes

1. National Agriculture Market (NAM), an online trading portal for farm produce was launched on:

 a) 4 April 2016 b) 10 April 2016

 c) 14 April 2016 d) 16 April 2016

 2. UN General Assembly declared 2016 as:

 a) International Year of  Oilseeds

 b) International Year of Pulses

 c) International Year of Sustainable Agri.

 d) International Year of Cereals

 3. Which of the following is the richest source of vitamin C (ascorbic acid)?

 a) Lime b) Guava

 c) Aonla d) Ber

1. Horticulture sector covers % of total cropped area.

 a) 10% b) 15%

 c) 20% d) 25%

 2. Which of the following is / are pre-emergence herbicide(s)?

 a) Diquat b) Paraquat

 c) Diuron d) All of these

 3. Potassium plays an important role in:

 a) Osmotic regulation b) Opening and closing of stomata

 c) Sugar translocation d) All of these

1. Horticulture sector covers % of total cropped area.

 a) 10% b) 15%

 c) 20% d) 25%

 2. World Trade Organization is situated at:

 a) Geneva b) Rome

 c) Paris d) Brazil

 3. AVRDC is situated at:

 a) Phillipines b) Taiwan

 c) Japan d) India

1. Horticulture sector covers % of total cropped area.

 a) 10% b) 15%

 c) 20% d) 25%

 2. Among all floricultural products, the contribution of dry flowers in total exports is:

 a) 40 b) 50

 c) 60 d) 70

 3. Protein synthesis takes place in:

 a) Nucleus b) Nucleolus

 c) Ribosome d) Mitochondria

1. The total annual rainfall of India is about:

 a) 1190 mm b) 1250 mm

 c) 1050 mm d) 1350 mm

 2. Net cultivated area of India is:

 a) 142 mha b) 150 mha

 c) 140 mha d) 152 mha

 3. Amrapali is a cross between:

 a) Neelum x Dushehari b) Dushehari x alphonso

 c) Ratna x Alphonso d) Dushehari x Neelum

1. The first Indian scientist who won the ‘World Food Prize’ is:

 a) Sanjay Rajaram b) M.S. Swaminathan

 c) Vergese Kurien d) G.S. Khus

 2. Seed rate of paddy (kg/ha) in SRI (System of Rice Intensification) method of cultivation is:

 a) 5-6 b) 8-10

 c) 12-14 d) 18-20

 3. AVRDC is situated at:

 a) Phillipines b Taiwan

 c) Japan d) India

1. The end product of glycolysis is:

 a) Malic acid b) Citric acid

 c) Pyruvic acid d) Oxalic acid

 2. Tag colour of certified seed is:

 a) White b) Purple

 c) Blue d) Golden yellow

 3. Which of the following varietyiesof sweet potato is rich in carotene content?

 a) Gauri b) Rajendra Shakarkand-35

 c) Pusa Sundri d) Rajendra Shakarkand-43