eChapters

Introduction

The Government of India created a historic act, by enacting the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), the largest employment generating programme in the world, ensuring the right to work in a country with a population of over one billion. The Government of India passed the NREGA 2005, (Central Act No. 42 of 2005). NREGA was renamed as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) on October 2nd, 2009. MGNREGA is the first ever law, in the world that guarantees wage employment at an unprecedented scale. This Act gives legal guarantee of at least one hundred days of wage employment in a financial year to a rural household, whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled and manual work. The Act is applicable in the Districts notified by the Government of India, the implementation of the Act calls for the formulation of Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme by the State Governments.

The key processes in the implementation of MGNREGA are the adult members of rural households submit their name, age and address with photo to the Gram Panchayat, which in turn registers households after making enquiry and issues a job card which contains the details of adult member enrolled and his/her photo. Registered person can submit an application for work in writing (for at least fourteen days of continuous work) either to Panchayat or to Programme Officer, who will accept the valid application and issue dated receipt of application, letter providing work will be sent to the applicant and displayed at Panchayat office. The employment will be provided within a radius of 5 kilometers and if it is above 5 kilometers extra wage will be paid. If employment under the scheme is not provided within fifteen days of receipt of the application, daily unemployment allowance will be paid to the applicant.

After long back of continuous steep turn down in cropping and consumption pattern of traditional grains, once again time is rolling back for them as is evident from available integrated meal or composite research formulations distributed all around the market. Today’s food market is segmented majorly with them and also emphasize more of healthy consumptions owe to adopted governmental strategy as a promotional trends such as subsidies, mid day meal programmes, selection of grain of the year by FAO, 2014 and revised labeling policies etc. are the real time examples. Present lifestyle, ongoing food habits, hike in grain prices, adulteration practices, demand in functional foods and many more reasons lead to the time which emphasizes on its own for consumption of traditional grains.

Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) is a resilient and ancient cereal crop native to the Indian subcontinent. Its cultivation dates back to ancient times, with references found in historical texts such as the Brihad Sanhita. This millet species exhibits remarkable adaptability to various agroclimatic conditions, making it well-suited for cultivation across different regions. Kodo millet thrives in a range of soil types, particularly well-drained and sandy soils, which contribute to its successful growth and yield. In terms of nutritional composition, kodo millet stands out as a significant source of protein, dietary fiber, minerals, and antioxidants. Its bioactive components contribute to potential health benefits, including aiding in diabetes management, improving cardiovascular health, and providing essential nutrients. The processing of kodo millet involves various techniques such as puffing, roasting, milling, and fermentation, each influencing its nutritional profile and culinary applications.

1.1 Introduction Millets are one of the world’s earliest food grains, arguably the first cereal grain utilized for household uses. It has been a cherished crop in India for ages and constitutes a staple food for over one-third of the world’s population. Recently ICAR has designated millets as “Shree Anna”. Several types of small-seeded cereals are grouped together as small millets. These crops offer a reliable and affordable harvest from the regions where the primary cereals fail to produce a sustainable yield. Small millets are insignificant in terms of food production, but they are vital as staple foods in their particular ecosystems. Small millets are more than just finger millet (Eleusine coracana) and include kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum L.), little millet (Panicum sumatrense), foxtail millet (Setaria italica L.), proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) and barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentaceae). The rest of the two small millets namely, fonio millet (Digitaria exilis) and teff (Eragrostis tef) are of local significance in Africa. Small millets have a high nutritional value, but also their demand has deteriorated due to a lack of standard processing techniques to compete with fine cereals. Small millets have a huge potential to satisfy our nutritional needs, therefore we must push ourselves and make efforts to enhance its utilization by incorporating them into our daily diet.

Kokum (Garcinia indica L.,) is an evergreen tree found in the tropical forests of India. It is a plant in the mangosteen family (Guttiferae), and is a fruit tree that has culinary, pharmaceutical, and industrial uses. The extract/concentrate of this fruit is called aagal in Konkani and Marathi. It is used for preparation of sol kadhi when mixed with coconut milk. The outer cover of fruit is dried in the sun to get aamsul or kokam. It is used as a souring agent in recipes from Maharashtra. It is a preferred substitute for tamarind in curries and other dishes from Konkan. It is also used in Konkani cuisine, in Gujarat, and some cuisines of South India. As kudam puli, it is an essential ingredient of traditional fish recipes of Kerala. It is particularly seen in Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Goa, Kerala, Assam and West Bengal.

Uses

The acidic sweet fruit is mainly used as souring agent for vegetable curry and dal. Sun drying is practiced for preservation. Dried Kokum fruit rinds are widely used in cooking as they impart a sweetish-tangy flavor to the food. The fruits contain citric acid, acetic acid, malic acid, ascorbic acid, hydroxycitric acid and garcinol. Fresh are cut in to halves and the fleshy portion containing the seeds is removed. The rind which constitutes about 50 per cent of the fruit is repeatedly soaked in the juice of the pulp during sun drying. It makes excellent beverage with pleasant flavour. Kokum butter is a product of commerce obtain from seed. It is also used in soap and candle making and suitable for ointment and other pharmaceutical preparations. This fruit is known to reduce obesity and regulate blood cholesterol level.

Introduction

In geographical location, the observations taken in proximity tend to be more alike than observations made at points that are far apart-that is, the values tend to be correlated. An area of study that takes this sort of spatial consideration into account is called geostatistics. A primary motivation for sampling is to make meaningful estimates of values at nearby positions in space and time. When values are assumed independent, the best estimate for an unmeasured point will be the mean. However, for correlated values nearby values are estimated by interpolation. The simplest interpolation scheme is a nearest neighbor estimate for which the unknown values are based on the closest measured location. Inverse distance is another sort of interpolation technique where weights are estimated based on the inverse distance squared. Kriging is a geostatistical interpolation technique that considers both the distance and the degree of variation between known data points when estimating values in unknown areas.

It makes the best use of existing knowledge by taking account of the way that a property varies in space through the variogram model. In its original formulation a kriged estimate at a place was simply a linear sum or weighted average of the data in its neighbourhood. Weights are based on the distance between the measured points, the prediction locations, and the overall spatial arrangement among the measured points. Since then kriging has been elaborated to tackle increasingly complex problems in mining, petroleum engineering, pollution control and abatement, and public health. The term is now generic, embracing several distinct kinds of kriging, both linear and non-linear.

In this era of information and communication, in a country like India where more than 75% of population live in rural areas, radio is the cheapest medium available in almost all families for entertainment and education.

A community radio (CR), in essence is a type of radio service that caters to the interests of a certain area, broadcasting material that is popular to a local audience but is overlooked by more powerful broadcast groups. It is usually established by the efforts of a specific community, operated by the community and for the community’s welfare. Radio can play an effective role in promoting social change.  Community radio station is one that is operated in the community, for the community, about the community and by the community.  It can play a very important role in bringing about social change. It covers all developmental and rights based issues, and can help to sustain the diversity of the local cultures and languages. It is an effort towards bottom-up approach to address specific requirements or rural Indian population. An attempt has been made to know the profile characteristics of krishi community radio listening farm women, awareness of farm women about FM krishi community radio and to study the usefulness of krishi community radio programmes as perceived by farm women.

Krishi Vigyan Kendra is a Government of India funded Indian Council of Agricultural Research Project implemented at district level for enhancing the productivity and livelihood through scientific extension works. Realizing the importance of technology dissemination in the changing scenario of food and nutritional security, ICAR intervened in a big way. All the first line extension projects were merged and brought under single umbrella of KVK. The major emphasis was to enhance the production and productivity as well as to generate household income and employment of farming community. It was also envisaged that these extension works will be act as model for extension agencies and also catalyzed to improve the existing systems for better delivery mechanism.

Abstract

A Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) is synonymous to farm science center with responsibilities of on- farm technological assessment, front line demonstrations, capacity building, advisory services and mulit-sector support to various private and public initiatives. The KVKs work under the ambit of ICAR, New Delhi with administrative support from local institutions or State Agricultural Universities. There were about 695 KVKs operational in India till October 2018. All KVKs fall under the jurisdiction of one of the 11 Agricultural Technology Application Research Institutes (ATARIs) spread throughout India. 21 KVKs are functioning in Jammu and Kashmir with seven of them in Jammu province namely KVK Jammu, Samba, Kathua, Reasi, Rajouri, Doda and Poonchh. The major thrust areas of hilly district Jammu and Kashmir are as integrated nutrient/pest/weed management in different crops, water management, promoting organic farming, protected cultivation of high value and low volume crops, promotion of aromatic and medicinal plants, increase in the productivity of livestock, drudgery reduction for farm women, promotion of loose flower cultivation, promotion of new single cross hybrids in maize, value addition of agricultural products and promotion of farming system approach. KVK Reasi has been able to motivate farmers of the district to adopt and practice organic farming, floriculture, backyard poultry farming and mushroom production at the commercial level.

Morphological characteristics

Strychnos nux-vomica is a medium sized deciduous tree. The trunk is tall, thick, straight and cylindrical covered with yellowish-grey to dark grey, smooth and thin barks. Wood is dense, hard white and close grained. Branches are irregular and covered with smooth ash colored bark and shiny dark green young shoots. Leaves are broad, opposite, simple and entire, smooth, short-stalked, blade orbicular to broadly elliptical or ovate, base rounded to cordate, apex shortly acuminate or acute, glabrous and shiny above, minutely hairy especially on veins beneath, 3–5-veined from the base.

Floral characteristics

Inflorescence is terminal cymes, many-flowered and appears with young leaves at the end of branchlets or on axillary shoots. Flowers hermaphrodite, actinomorphic, homogamous, greenish-white colored, small in size, nectariferous, funnel-shaped and emits unpleasant odour. Flower are pentamerous; calyx lobes ovate, outside densely hairy. Corolla bears a slender tube of 1 cm long, abruptly widening at the throat, outside glabrous, having pubescence at base, lobes narrowly ovate, of 3 mm long, margin thickened and minutely hairy, greenish white to white; stamens inserted at the mouth of the corolla tube, exserted altering with corolla lobes. Anthers pale cream in color, dithecous, introrse and dehisce longitudinally. Ovary is superior, ovoid, glabrous, bicarpellary with axile placentation. The style is filiform, glabrous and as long as the corolla tube, stigma capitates (head-shaped).

Lactate dehydrogenase: An enzyme that reversibly catalyses conversion of pyruvate to lactate by utilizing NAD as coenzyme. This operates under anaerobic respiratory condition.

Lactate fermentation: Lactic acid fermentation is a biological process by which glucose and six carbon sugars (also, disaccharides of six carbon sugars, e.g. sucrose or lactose) are converted into cellular energy and the metabolite lactate. It is an anaerobic fermentation reaction.

Latent heat: The heat required to convert a solid into a liquid or vapour, or a liquid into a vapour, without change of temperature. It is also called as hidden heat.

Leaching requirement: (LR) The amount of water in excess of the plant requirement that is needed to remove salt from the root zone in order to prevent soil salinity from exceeding a specified value.

Leaf Area Duration (LAD): It is the functional leaf area or estimated photosynthetic area which contributed for the total biomasss. To correlate dry matter yield with Leaf area, Power et al., (1967) integrated the Leaf area with time and called as Leaf Area Duration. LAD taken into account, both the duration and extent of photosynthetic tissue of the crop canopy. The LAD is expressed in m². days.

Laburnum anagyroides Med. (Fabaceae): Eng.- Golden Rain Tree [NI]. An upright, small sized ornamental tree with hairy, grey-green young shoots. Leaves dark- green above and grey-green beneath, having 3-elliptic-obovate leaflets. In late April to early May, produces bright yellow flowers in dense racemes

Latent Structure Analysis: Latent Structure Analysis shares both of the objectives of factor analysis to extract latent factors as well as an express relationship of observed (manifest) variables with the factors as their indicators and to classify a population of respondents into guanine types. This analysis is suitable if the variables involved in the study do not possess dependency relationship and happen to be non-metric.

Lab coat: A loose white coat with deep pockets that is worn in a laboratory or medical office.

Labelling: It means any written, printed or graphic matter that is present on the label, accompanies the food or is displayed near the food, including that for the purpose of promoting its sale or disposal. After packaging, labels are required on the finished products intended for distribution and sale. Labelling can reflect on the quality of the product. It must be clear and informative. Information includes Name of the Manufacturer, Date of Manufacture, Net Weight, Gross Weight, Best before etc. Proper storage is needed for maintenance of the quality. Storage must be done only at recommended temperature, relative humidity, light and air / oxygen and carbon dioxide conditions etc. to maintain the quality of the food product. Label may include tag, brand, and pictorial or descriptive matter, written, printed, embossed, graphic, perforated, stencilled or stamped impressions. It is attached to container, cover, lid, or crown of a food package (Plate 384).

Laboratory: A place equipped for experimental study in a science or for testing and analysis. Broadly, it is a place providing opportunity for experimentation, observation, or practice in a field of study.

Lacquer: It is a colloidal dispersion of a solution of cellulose derivative, resin and plasticizer in solvent and diluents, where in all these constituents dried in air by evaporation of solvents, thus yielding a transparent, hard and water proof film.

Laboratory animal science (LAS) advances scientific understanding of the care and use of animals that play a key role in research supporting the development of biomedicine. National and provincial laws, regulations, guidelines and standards apply to quality control and licensing, quarantine and infectious disease control, breeding and husbandry, transgenic animals, staff qualifications, animal welfare, imports, exports and transportation.   Regulation and oversight of lab animal use are the responsibility of the National Ministry of Science and Technology, provincial departments of science and technology, and institutional animal care and use committees.

Definition-Importance of keeping a lab record-Features of a lab record - Contents of lab record-Guidelines for keeping a lab record

Definition

It is a primary record of research. Researchers use a lab note book to document their hypotheses, experiments and initial analysis or interpretation of these experiments.

Laboratory Record

The following is a general description of how to keep a proper laboratory notebook. Requirements for different teaching, research, clinical, or industrial labs will most likely vary. Some institutions/labs will require less stringent record keeping, others will hold you to a very strict protocol. A well kept notebook provides a reliable reference for writing up materials and methods and results for a study. It is a legally valid record that preserves your rights or those of an employer or academic investigator to your discoveries. A comprehensive notebook permits one to reproduce any part of a methodology completely and accurately.

13.1. Introduction

Any written, printed, or graphic matter that is present on the label and serves the purpose of promoting the sale of any product is known as food label (WHO). It is believed in general that food packaging and proper labelling plays an important role in food safety as it gives information regarding allergens present, manufacturing site, expiry date, nutritional information etc.

Consumption of unhealthy diet leads to many non-communicable diseases. Therefore, it is the responsibilities of food manufacturers and regulating bodies such as FSSAI and BIS to work hand in hand to provide safe and healthy food to the consumers. Labelling is an important tool useful to disseminate nutritional information to the consumers. Labelling promotes healthy eating among consumers and gives them an option at the time of purchase to choose healthy food. Information in labelling the enables consumers to choose appropriate food according to their diets and lifestyle (Grunert and Wills, 2007). In addition, the information related to nutritional content of the food must be present in such a way that it well understood by every consumer (Wills et al., 2009).

1. Food Labelling

Food labelling is the primary means of communication between the producer and seller of food on one hand, and the purchaser and consumer on the other.

Basic Terminology in Food labelling

‘‘Food” means any substance, whether processed, semi-processed or raw, which is intended for human consumption, and includes drinks, chewing gum and any substance which has been used in the manufacture, preparation or treatment of “food” but does not include cosmetics or tobacco or substances used only as drugs.

‘‘Ingredient” means any substance, including a food additive, used in the manufacture or preparation of a food and present in the final product although possibly in a modified form.

A family of about 236 genera and 7,200 species, Labiatae are cosmopolitan in their distribution and their chief centre is the Mediterranean region. About 65 genera and over 400 species have been reported from India, mainly distributed in North Western parts of India and southern parts of India. Some largely represented genera along with the approximate number of their worldover reported species and common names of some of them are Salvia (500-700, sage), Hyptis (400), Thymus (300-400, thyme), Teucrium (300, germander), Stachys (300), Scutellaria (200, skullcap), Coleus (200, Jacob’s coat), Ocimum (150, basil), Nepeta (150, catnip), Lavendula (28, lavender), Mentha (25, mint) and Rosmarinus (3, rosemary).
Salvia is a tender herbaceous annual or perennial plant and cultivated as bedding plant in many countries. Owing to its adaptability, self sowing ability and handsome appearance, it has been introduced and commanded all over the world. Salvia species have long history of utilization as medicinal herbs. The therapeutic value of this crop is widely recognized in traditional Chinese medicine for various ailments. Some species are strongly aromatic having
horticultural, commercial and medicinal values.

A family of about 236 genera and 7,200 species, Labiatae are cosmopolitan in their distribution and their chief centre is the Mediterranean region. About 65 genera and over 400 species have been reported from India, mainly distributed in North Western parts of India and southern parts of India. Some largely represented genera along with the approximate number of their worldover reported species and common names of some of them are Salvia (500-700, sage), Hyptis (400), Thymus (300-400, thyme), Teucrium (300, germander), Stachys (300), Scutellaria (200, skullcap), Coleus (200, Jacob’s coat), Ocimum (150, basil), Nepeta (150, catnip), Lavendula (28, lavender), Mentha (25, mint) and Rosmarinus (3, rosemary).
Salvia is a tender herbaceous annual or perennial plant and cultivated as bedding plant in many countries. Owing to its adaptability, self sowing ability and handsome appearance, it has been introduced and commanded all over the world. Salvia species have long history of utilization as medicinal herbs. The therapeutic value of this crop is widely recognized in traditional Chinese medicine for various ailments. Some species are strongly aromatic having
horticultural, commercial and medicinal values.

Labile fractions of soil carbon (C) refer to the fraction of soil carbon that are easily altered by microbial activities. These fractions serve as sensitive indicators to changes in management induced soil quality and are grouped under active soil C pool. The method described by Weil et al. (2003)estimates changes in biologically active soil C using a dilute KMnO . This is an improvement over the method used by Blair et al (1995), where a very high concentration (0.333 M) of KMnO₄ was used.

Organic carbon present in soil can be very labile, labile or non-labile. This procedure measures the extent of lability of soil organic carbon through relative degree of oxidation by K₂Cr₂O₇.

Lablab purpureus usually knowna s Dolichus bean, Hyacinth bean or Field bean belonging to the family fabaceae, one of the most ancient crops among cultivated plants. It is a bushy, semi-erect, perennial herb, showing no tendency to climb. It is mainly cultivated either as a pure crop or mixed with finger millet, groundnut, castor, corn, bajra or sorghum in Asia and Africa. It is a multipurpose crop grown for pulse, vegetable and forage. The crop is grown for its green pods, while dry seeds are used in various vegetable food preparations.

Season:Seed is very sensitive to weather. A grain crop can be sold for a lower price even if it damaged by rain. But a seed crop, if affected will lead to low seed quality. Hence selecting the right season is necessary. Generally, the seed should mature in cool dry climate. Seasons should be selected with this idea in mind. In Tamil Nadu the best seed crops are grown during March--April and September - October as the seeds mature during the cool months of January - February.

An animal, which has more or less of comparable (similar) physiology and body composition with various biological system as human beings, which are tiny, easy to handle, less expensive and co-operative are called as “Laboratory Animals”. Importance of Laboratory Animal in Bio-Medical Research Laboratory animals are used in basic biological research, disease diagnosis, immunology, virology, applied medicine and demonstration/teaching. Materials collected from diseased animals need confirmation through microbiological and pathological means of diagnosis. Rats, Beagle dogs and primates are engaged in toxicological research. These are used to study the functions of organs, response of a particular organ or the whole system to drug and the method of evolving surgical techniques and demonstration of experimental surgery need experiment animals. Hamster have cheek pouches which may extend to halfway down the length of the body, are used to temporarily store food and, when full, should not be mistaken for a tumor. An entire shelled peanut

Introduction
 
Animals used for experimental research purpose, which show results resembling to human beings are known as lab animals. They are mostly used because of their small size, lesser feed and space requirement. Furthermore, they are not natural host for most of the animal / human pathogens. The laboratory animal research is conducted at universities, medical colleges, pharmaceutical companies, farms, defense establishments and commercial facilities that provide animal-testing services to industry. It includes basic research in the area of genetics, developmental biology, behavioural science etc., as well as applied research in the area of biomedical science, xenotransplantation and drugs including cosmetics testing. Laboratory animals are also used for education, breeding and defense research. The common laboratory animals are mice, rats, hamsters, guinea pigs and rabbits. However, cats, dogs, monkeys, goats, sheep, cattle, pig, horses, fishes etc. can also be utilized as laboratory animals for experimental purpose in biomedical sciences.

The group of animals constantly used in laboratories for general research in all discipline of science is called as laboratory animals. Commonly, it includes rats, mice, rabbits and guinea pigs. However, under certain circumstances, additional animal species like hamsters, non-human primates, amphibians, fowl, sheep and pigs can also be included. This term incorporates traditional laboratory animals, farm animals, wildlife and aquatic animals. Nontraditional animals, inclusive of invertebrate species are also included where they are relevant to the unit’s mission. Generally, these animals come under vertebrate but broadly laboratory animals may be classified in two major groups i.e. laboratory mammals and non-mammalian laboratory animals. The laboratory mammals include mouse, rat, guinea pig, rabbit, cat, dog, ferret, gerbil, bats, hamster, mink and monkey (Rhesus). Beside these mammalians the large domestic animals/livestock are also used as laboratory animals (horse, cow, sheep, goat etc) for fulfilling the demands of various laboratories. Poultry is also used as non-mammalian laboratory animals and Specific Pathogen Free (SPF) chicks are at utmost demand for production and testing of biologicals. The other non-mammalian laboratory animals includes reptiles (tortoise, lizzards and snakes), insects (cockroach, drosophila, house fly, house cricket, locusts, tsetse fly, stablefly etc) pisces (fishes and snails) and amphibians (toad and frog). Laboratory animals have been used extensively for basic research in drug and bacteria screening, toxicology, antibiotic sensitivity testing, animal models of diseases and production/testing of biologicals. Laboratory mammals are also valuable for diagnosis of infectious diseases in man and domestic animals. In this chapter the most commonly used laboratory animals i.e. mice, rats, guinea pigs and rabbits will be discussed.

Several substrates, like proteins (enzymes), are very sensitive to alteration in the concentration of the solution they are placed in. Hence is the importance of a buffer which controls the chemical properties of the medium. Literally a “buffer” has the ability to resist changes in the hydrogen ion concentration. Although, buffers do contain other molecules, that might, in addition to the hydrogen ion concentration, influence the ionic strength, the activity of enzymes, and other parameters of the experiment.

In any biological experiment, appropriate buffer must be selected based on their effect on the experiment. Ideal buffers control pH and ionic strength without interacting adversely with the experiment undertaken. For example, although phosphate is a common buffer, it may not be suited when phosphate is a substrate or product of the reaction being studied. Also, some proteins interact poorly with some buffers. For example, Tris is not ideal as it exhibit high pKa and the large change in pKa when temperature changes, although it is cheap and most proteins are stable in Tris buffers, moreover it seldom reacts with reaction substrates hence, Tris buffer is commonly used in biochemical experiments.

A. Intestinal protozoa Fresh faeces must be used as a sample. The sample must be examined immediately and without refrigeration. Methods of examination 1. Direct smear examination A thin smear of faeces mixed with either water or normal saline (recommended for Trophozoites since they stay intact and motile longer). Select blood-tinged mucus or tiny tissue bits if the faeces are dysenteric. One to two percent of an aqueous eosin solution can be used in place of saline or water, but the oocyst still resist the stain. The viability is examined using the eosin solution. It is possible to employ an iodine solution (which kills protozoa), which allows for the identification and differentiation of the protozoa. It is possible

Molecular biology labo-ratories are becoming very common in every University and research institutes and a good laboratory manners is extremely important as many of the equipments are very expensive and sensitive. Hence familiarity with equipments becomes very crucial before starting any experiment.

Microscope

A microscope can be defined as an optical instrument consisting of a lens or a combination of lenses for getting magnified images of minute objects. A simple microscope is essentially an ordinary magnifying lens held on an adjustable stand. It can give magnification up to 20 times the size of the object.

A compound microscope consists of two separate lens system, the objective and eye piece (ocular) mounted on a holder known as body tube and with adjustment for illuminating the objects. It gives much greater magnification (100 to 1500 times) when compared to a simple microscope.

This chapter introduces the essential components of laboratory work that form the foundation for veterinary parasitology and molecular biology research. A well-equipped laboratory along with proper safety protocols and correctly prepared reagents, is the key to reliable experimental outcomes and a secure working environment.
The following sections describe the standard operating procedures and laboratory biosafety, standard equipment used in research work, and the fundamental principles of solution preparation. These basic laboratory skills are essential prerequisites for the specialised techniques covered in subsequent chapters on veterinary parasitology, molecular biology and bioinformatics. Understanding and applying these foundational concepts allows researchers to maintain experimental consistency, ensure reproducible results, and conduct investigations safely and efficiently. The methods and principles outlined here will be regularly applied throughout the various techniques detailed in this manual, serving as essential knowledge for all laboratory personnel as well short-term visitors.
1.1 Laboratory Standard Operating Procedures and Safety
Laboratory safety is fundamental to protecting personnel, maintaining sample integrity, and ensuring reliable experimental outcomes. This section outlines essential laboratory conduct, safety protocols for personnel and equipment, waste management, and emergency protocols for standard laboratories carrying out diagnostics as well as research.

In the Radiochemical Laboratory

The following are some illustrative recommendation which may be used selected as a guide for setting up working rules :

General

No unnecessary materials should be brought into the laboratory. No unnecessary work should be done there.

Eating, drinking, and the use of cosmetics in the laboratory should be forbidden. Radioactive materials should not be place in milk bottles, soft drink bottles, or other vessels that might be inadvertently used for food purposes.

Record should be kept of radioactivity brought into the building and of its disposition.

The Laboratory Worker is Surrounded by Many Dangers such as from..........

Handling of infectious materials.

Handling of broken glassware.

Accidental spill of corrosive reagents.

Swallowing of corrosive reagents such as concentrated Sulphuric acid,

Hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide, trichloroacetic acid etc.

Swallowing of infectious specimen.

Inhalation of poisonous fumes.

Infection in the conduct of necropsies.

Potential hazards in the form of inflammable chemicals and gas leakages.

Introduction
According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) is a quality system that ensures the nonclinical safety studies are appropriately designed, conducted, and documented to generate reliable data. The laboratory techniques are defined as the processes and practices that are recommended for equipment use in the laboratory, while laboratory methods are based on established scientific principles involving biology, chemistry, and physics, and encompass all aspects of the clinical laboratory from testing the amount of cholesterol in blood to analysing DNA to growing microscopic organisms that may be causing an infection. One of the most significant parts of laboratory techniques and laboratory methods is the proper validation of the equipments (old or new equipments) as well as all the testing procedures/ methods (established or newly developed methods). Analytical method validation is a critical process to ensure the quality and safety of products. The objective of the validation of an analytical method is to demonstrate that it is suitable for its intended purpose; the results are authentic and universally acceptable. An analytical method is suitably well considered when the results generated through different method are consistent, reproducible, and thus, reliable.
The validation is required when
• A new method has been developed
• Revision of established method
• Use of established methods in different laboratories and different analysts, etc.
• Comparison of methods required
• When quality control indicates method changes

Haemostasis refers to the physiological process that prevents blood loss following vascular injury while maintaining fluid blood flow within the vascular system. It involves a complex interplay between the vascular endothelium, platelets, coagulation factors, and fibrinolytic proteins. In animals, laboratory tests for haemostasis play a critical role in diagnosing bleeding disorders, monitoring treatment, and investigating hypercoagulable states. This article discusses the principles, applications, and limitations of laboratory tests used to assess haemostasis in animals.
In veterinary medicine, laboratory tests for haemostasis are essential diagnostic tools for identifying bleeding disorders, hypercoagulable states, and monitoring therapeutic interventions. They are crucial in both emergency and routine clinical settings for animals. These tests provide insights into the functionality of primary haemostasis (platelet plug formation), secondary haemostasis (coagulation cascade and fibrin clot formation), and tertiary haemostasis (fibrinolysis and clot breakdown).

2.1 Beakers

Beakers are the one of most important vessels used in laboratory which is made up of heat resistant glass.

They are available in various capacities ranging from 10 to 3000 mL.

For convenience of pouring solution, spout is provided in the beaker.

They are used to perform titrations & for boiling solutions, etc.,

Beakers are constructed in tall and low forms.

Labour economics : The aspects of economics concerned with the supply and demand for labor. This includes factors affecting the participation rate, wage bargaining and organized labor, training, hours and conditions of work, practices concerning hiring, redundancy, labor turnover, migration and the age of retirement.

Labour intensive : A production process that involves comparatively large amounts of labour; the opposite of capital intensive.

Labour market flexibility : A flexible labour market is one in which it is easy and inexpensive for firms to vary the amount of labour they use, including by changing the hours worked by each employee and by changing the number of employees. This often means minimal regulation of the terms of employment (no minimum wage, say) and weak (or no) trade unions. Such flexibility is characterised by its opponents as giving firms all the power, allowing them to fire employees at a moment’s notice and leaving workers feeling insecure.

Labour theory of value : The notion that the value of any good or service depends on how much labour it uses up. First suggested by adam smith, it took a central place in the philosophy of karl marx. Some neo-classical economists disagreed with this theory, arguing that the price of something was independent of how much labour went into producing it and was instead determined solely by supply and demand.

In economics, labour is defined as manual or mental work for acquiring income for their livelihoods. In farming domain, the agriculture labor is defined as labourers who earn their main source of income by working in farms of others for a wage. In this type, labours may classified in three namely skilled, semi skilled and unskilled labours based on their skill sets.

Skilled labour is a type of labour, who is having specific skills like carpentry, black smiths, drivers, masonry etc will be utilized to perform a specific function, and correspondingly their wages will be on the higher side than other two types. 

6.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the development of data logger of agricultural field parameter monitoring system with LabVIEW. The system comprises of two sections- Fields device and data logger. Field device comprises of Arduino, smoke detector (for sensing hazardous gases), soil moisture sensor, temperature sensor, humidity sensor, water level sensor, battery, display unit, 2.4 GHz RF modem. Data logger comprises of Arduino, display unit, 2.4 GHz RF modem, power supply, PC with LabVIEW. The system is designed to monitor the environment and agriculture field parameters. The field device is designed to collect all physical parameters and communicate it to the receiver end with LabVIEW. For establishing communication between two sections 2.4GHz RF modem is used, which can be replaced with any other modem also.Fig.6.1 shows block diagram of field device and Fig.6.2shows block diagram of data logger.Table.6.1 & Table.6.2 shows the component list required to develop the field device and data logger.

Introduction

Enhancing productivity and profitability are two major factors of agricultural growth for the future. Over dependence on monsoon and limited scope for area expansion made agriculture development is critical to generate employment and additional income for the rural poor. Major part of agricultural population is small and marginal farmers who are economically vulnerable and poor. The consequence of inclement weather on crop production affects ultimately livelihoods of farmers. In the changing scenario improvements in farmers’ productivity and profitability, diversification of agriculture have been acknowledged to enhance profit, generate additional employment for rural masses and to conserve the natural resources.

Integration of different component at farm level is the need of hour to enhance the profitability of agriculture production system. Jharkhand state a resource rich state wheremonocroping in rainfed agriculture with small undulated upland is in practice. Rural economy is mixed type where forest produce particularly lac play important role. To enhance rural economy, integration of agriculture with forest based intervention appears to be viable option to enhance profits and productivity of upland which is almost sixty percent of total cultivable land. Even though moisture is available during Rabi free grazing made imperative cultivation of second crop. Continuous aberrant weather demand the inclusion of forest resources to be exploited in diversified and integrated manner as forest interventions require little water.

Introduction

India is an agriculture dominated country. According to the report of the Situation Assessment Survey of Agricultural Households by the NSO, 54.6% of the total workforce is engaged in agriculture and allied sectors which encompasses for 17.8% of India’s total GVA for the year 2019-20. The number of operational holdings in the country is estimated at 14.64 crores (Agriculture Census 2016). As we can see from Figure 1 the operational landholding of Indian farmers is increasing day by day. The average size of operational holdings was 1.15 hectares in 2010-11 which has declined to 1.08 hectares in the year 2015-16 (Agriculture Statistics at a Glance, 2021).

Summary

Lac is a resinous exudation from the body of female scale insect Laccifer lacca Kerr. belongs to family Lacciferidae of phylum Arthropoda, class  Insecta and order Hemiptera. The lac insect lives on native trees in India, China,Thiland, Burma/Myanmar and Malaysia. In India it is chiefly grown on trees like Kusum, “Palas”, and “Ber. It is also purposely cultured on shoots of these tree species. Lac cultivation is an alternative agricultural profession and provides subsidiary source of income for a large number of farmers mainly in Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Odisha, North-East states and other parts of the country. India, which is the highest producer of lac, contributes around 55% of the total world requirement followed by China and Thiland. The country exports around 80-90% of its production.

Introduction

Lac, a resinous exudation from female scale insects, has been utilized in India since the Vedic period. Its earliest mention can be traced back to the Atharva Veda, where the insect is referred to as 'Laksha,' and its characteristics and behavior are described. In the renowned Indian epic 'Mahabharata,' there is also a mention of a 'Laksha Griha,' a house made of lac, skillfully constructed by the 'Kauravas' with the help of their architect 'Purocha,' with the malicious intent of setting the 'Pandavas,' their formidable enemies, on fire. The use of lac was well-known to the Greeks and Romans since ancient times. The use of lac was well-known to the Greeks and Romans since ancient times. In Asia, the cultivation of lac insects has a rich history, with indications that it dates back as far as 4000 years in China, where its cultivation coincided with the growth of the silk industry

1. The first scientific account of the lac insect was given by …. . . .

 a) J. Kerr (1782) b) W.Kritz (1882)   

 c) Pamella Britz (1888) d) None of these

 2. The scientific name of lac insect is …. . . .

 a) Tachardia lacca b) Tachardia indica   

 c) Tachardia suzi d) Tachardia essart

 3. Lac is secreted by insects for …. . . .

 a) Feeding b) Reproduction  

 c) Protection from predators d) Both a & b

 4. The life cycle of lac insect takes about …. . . months.

 a) Two months b) Six months   

 c) Ten months d) Twelve months

 5. The life cycle of lac insect consists of …. . . .

 a) Nymph instar b) Pupa   

 c) Adult  d) All of these

Like all snake poisons, Lachesis decomposes the blood rendering it more fluid; hence a haemorrhagic tendency is marked. Purpura, septic states, diphtheria, and other low forms of disease when the system is thoroughly poisoned and the prostration is marked. Delirium tremens with mucfrtrembling and confusion. Very important medicine during menopause and for patients of a melancholic disposition. Diphtheria carriers. Sensation of tension in various parts.

Lachesis treats the worst of throat problems, hot flushes in women during menopause, and diptheric paralysis. It is indicated in high blood pressure with constriction and in heart disease when the face is purple and bloated. Also religious insanity.

As a red inflammation leads us to use Belladonna, so Lachesis is to be thought of when the colour is purple. The face is purple; the eyes are engorged. An inflamed spot is purple and so are the inflamed glands. Ulceration bleeds, blood coagulates and the surface looks purple. There is extreme sensitivity to touch. The throat is purple and not red because the blood under the skin has coagulated. There is nothing like Lachesis if these indications are present.

Biochemical and Physiological Role of Lactation is Tremendous

On a large scale, feed nutrients are converted into milk constituents by considerable biochemical and physiological processes. Ahigh yielder of dairy may produce five times dry matter in the milk, as is present in her own body, during a single lactation. Still there are records of cows, which have produced in a year’s milk over five times the organic matter of their own bodies. Certain other high yielders, which over a life time, have secreted organic matter in the milk equivalent to thirty five times that present in their own tissues. The noteworthy physiological performance is represented in the milk secretion of sownursinga largerlitter.Humanorganismiscapableofproducinganastonishing output of milk. Thefeed provides rawmaterials fromwhichthe milkconstituents are derived. Some of these milk components are synthesized in the udder, for which energy is supplied again byfeed. Therefore, the amount and composition of milk dictates feed requirement.

Lactation is the process of milk secretion by the mammary gland. Milk is one of the most fascinating biological fluid whose role as a nearly complete food in sustaining life processes is well known. Milk provides an essential and highly digestible form of nutrients for the mammalian young during the critical period after birth. Milk also forms the first meal of the mammalian youngs.

Most mammals produce milk according to the requirements for their young one’s. However, man for centuries have selectively bred several animals, so that they produce milk, far in excess of the requirements of their youngs. The excess milk is harvested by man for his own and his children’s nurture. The physiology of the mammary gland or the mechanism of milk secretion forms an important part of the man’s strategy to manipulate it to its own advantage. Milk forms the raw material for the multi million dollar dairy industry all over the world. In India, dairying is the second largest agriculture based industry.

The most important animal domesticated by man for production of milk is undoubtedly the cow. Buffalo as a milk producer is important only in Asia & parts of Africa. In India its importance is as much or even more as compared to the cow in milk production ability. The other important milk producing animals are goat, sheep, camel, yak, and mithun.

The ability to produce milk is dependent on several factors including breed, season, feed etc. Majority of our animals do not conform to any descript type, some 20 per cent of them belong to 26 cattle breeds and 7 buffalo breeds. The major milk producing breed of buffaloes are Murrah and Nili Ravi. The season affects the milk producing ability of domestic animals. In Northern India, cow’s milk production is highest during March and lowest during September. However, the buffalo milk production is highest during October and lowest during June.

1. INTRODUCTION

Amongst the common fermentations employed in food are alcoholic, lactic acid and acetic acid. Lactic acid fermentation is a potent tool of biopreservation of foods by the use of biological means i.e. microorganisms or their metabolites having antimicrobial action. It deals with the extension of storage life and increased safety of edible products by employing natural microflora or their antimicrobial products such as in food fermentation. Though many problems in food processing and microbiological safety of food have diminished, yet these are certainly not eliminated altogether. These include the likelihood of food-related illness and product spoilage in industrialized countries. The increasing consumption of pre-cooked food, prone to temperature abuse, are among the main causes of this scenario. The bacterial pathogens that account for many of these foodborne illness cases include Salmonella, Compylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli 0157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, and Clostridium botulinum. Until now, approaches to seek improved food safety had relied heavily to find out more efficient chemical preservatives or on the application of more drastic physical treatments (e.g. high temperatures) of food processing. Nevertheless, these types of solutions do have some drawbacks also: the proven toxicity of some of the commonest used chemical preservatives (e.g. nitrites), the alteration of the sensory and nutritional properties of foods (thermal processing) especially recent consumer trends in purchasing and consumption, with demands for safe but minimally processed products without additives.

(Colorimetric Method of Barker and Summerson, 1941)
I. Method for Blood / Plasma
Principle

In this method, glucose and other interfering material of the protein free blood filtrate is removed by the Van Slyke-Salkowski method of treatment with copper sulphate and calcium hydroxide. A part of the resulting solution is heated with concentrated sulphuric acid to convert lactic acid to acetaldehyde, which is then determined by reaction with p-hydroxydiphenyl in the presence of copper ions.

10.1 Lambda Function

Lambda Function or anonymous function in python programming

A lambda function can take any number of arguments, but can only have one expression.

Syntax:

Lambda arguments: expression only single line

The expression is executed and the result is returned.

Example

x=lambda a:a+10

Print(x(5))