eChapters

The tissue/cell culture lab has the requirement of maintaining an aseptic environment. There are several aspects to the design of good tissue culture facilities. Ideally, cell culture work should be conducted in a single-use facility. Therefore, cell culture lab unit should be separated from the rest of the lab area. It can be either separate lab or a closed partition in a big lab. All new material should be handled as ‘quarantine’ material in a separate area, and materials known to be free of contaminants should only be allowed inside the culture room. In addition, the work surfaces should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected between activities.

For most of the work involving non-infectious primary culture and cell lines, the laboratory should be designated to at least BSL2 facility. The location of the Biosafety cabinet is the most important point to consider. When operated correctly, the cabinet will provide a clean working environment, whilst protecting the operator from aerosols. Environmental monitoring with Tryptone Soy Broth agar settle plates inside the biosafety cabinet is a good indicator of the cleanliness of a cabinet. There should be no growth of bacteria and fungi after 3-5 days of incubation.

4.1. Area approach

National Credit Council was set up in December, 1967

Study group in October, 1968 under chairmanship of Prof. D R Gadgil found that Commercial Banks had penetrated only 5000 villages as of June, 1967 and its share was 1% compared to co-operatives.

Recommended the adoption of an area approach for bridging the spatial and structural credit gaps.

All India Rural Credit Review Committee 1969 also endorsed the view the Commercial Banks should increasingly came forward to finance activities in rural areas.

RBI accepted recommendation and formulated Lead Bank Scheme (LBS) in December, 1969

Each district had been assigned to different banks (Public and private) to act as a consortium leader to coordinate branch expansion and credit planning.

Nationalization of 14 major Commercial Banks in July 1969 (Another 6 banks in 1980), paved the way for branch expansion network in unbanked rural and semi urban areas.

Introduction

In recent years, women have made remarkable strides in the veterinary field, bringing a wealth of skill and dedication to various sectors, including clinical practice, research, academia, and industry. Today, women comprise a significant portion of the veterinary workforce. However, the path to leadership and career advancement still presents unique challenges. Gender biases, limited representation in senior roles, and the constant balancing act between personal and professional life often stand in the way. As a woman in this field, I understand the significance of leadership development and the impact it has on creating a meaningful, rewarding career. This session aims to equip women veterinarians with actionable strategies and essential leadership skills to advance their careers meaningfully. Leadership is not merely a title; it’s about creating positive change, setting examples, and inspiring those around us. For women in veterinary medicine, it means breaking barriers, making a difference, and contributing to animal welfare and public health. By cultivating confidence and a focused approach, women can rise to leadership roles that truly make an impact.

Abstract

Leadership behavior is seen in every group of social animals like elephant, honey bee, human being, etc. Initially people thought this behavior as inborn character and only few lucky people possessed it. But now it has been proved that this character can be developed by interested people through systematic training. In every family parent are playing the role of either leader or manager and being a role model gradually transmitting this behavior to their children from childhood itself. Training begins at home of every successful leader.  In this article the characteristic features of leaders, style of their functioning, leadership theories and the difference between a leader and a manager are discussed in details. Important tips have been mentioned to follow for becoming a good and successful leader.

Leaf analysis and its importance

Improved fertilizer management for crops is important in view of today’s need to reduce production costs, conserve natural resources, and minimize possible negative environmental impacts. These goals can be achieved through optimum management of the fertilizer applied. Understanding the crop nutrient requirements and using soil testing to predict fertilizer needs are keys to fertilizer management efficiency.

Plant tissue testing is another tool for use in achieving a high degree of precision in fertilizer management. Timely tissue testing can help diagnose suspected nutrient problems or can simply assist in learning more about fertilizer management efficiency. Leaf analysis (also called stem leaf analysis, tissue analysis or foliar analysis) is the most precise method of monitoring plant nutrient levels. While soil analysis reveals the levels of essential soil nutrients, leaf analysis shows the grower exactly what the plant has successfully absorbed. Leaf analysis is especially helpful in detecting nutrient deficiencies before they affect plant health and yield.

1. INTRODUCTION

Leaf and soil analysis are the tools to estimate the fertilizer needs of fruit crops. Leaves are selected for analysis because:

• Leaf is the principal site of plant metabolism.
• The changes in nutrient supply are reflected in the leaf composition.
• The changes are more pronounced at certain stages of development.
• The concentration of nutrients in the leaf at specific growth stages are related to performance of the plant.

Mizoram in North East India, is located between 21º58’ to 23º35’ N latitude and 92º15’ to 93º29’ E longitude, surrounded by Tripura, Assam and Manipur in North frontier regions; Bangladesh in west; and Mayanmar in east and south. The undulated topography of Mizoram, known as Lushai hills during British period, has varied altitudes ranging from 21 to 2157 m above mean sea level, annual rainfall of 2000-3200 mm, and mean monthly temperature of summer (monsoon) ranges from 14.6ºC to 29.6ºC. Besides having good rainfall; the vegetable production, including leaf vegetables, during winter period is limited by acute soil moisture stress caused by high rate of evapo-transpiration, almost no rain from November-March, non-availability of irrigation water and low water holding capacity of the sloppy land (Singh et al., 2011; Singh et al., 2013b).

Leaf vegetables are rich sources of provitamin-A, vitamin-C and minerals like calcium, iron etc.  They also provide roughage required in human diet.  The Indian Council of Medical Research (1984) recommended a daily intake of 100 g and 40 g of leaf vegetables in the diet of woman and man, respectively. Amaranth, beet leaf, spinach, fenugreek, cabbage etc. are the major leaf vegetables grown in the country. In addition, a number of under-utilized annual crops are also grown as leaf vegetables in specific regions. Tender stems and leaves of a number of perennial crops are rich sources of vitamins and minerals and are used for cooking.  The major annual leaf vegetables have a few features in common:

ABSTRACT

The Indian short-nosed fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx is one among the three paleotropical species known to make tents. Once a tent is made, male typically defends it against other competing males and also defends the females who join his tent.

Introduction

Leafy vegetables belong to an important group of vegetables and are highly nutritious due to their richness in Vitamin A (Carotene), Vitamin C, Folic acid, Riboflavin, Thiamine and minerals like Iron, Calcium and Phosphorus etc. Appreciable quantity of proteins is also found in these crops. They also provide a variety of phyto-nutrients including beta-carotene, lutein and zeaxanthin, which protect cells from damage, age-related problems, among many other effects. Dark green leaves even contain small amounts of Omega-3 fat. They are available at cheaper rate in the market as compared to other vegetables. They provide roughage and have an important place in the balanced diet. It is recommended that a daily intake of 100 g and 40 g of leafy vegetables in the diet of woman and man respectively. India is the 2^nd largest producer of leafy vegetables in the world after China, accounted for about 10% of the world production (Singh et al., 2006) but, the production levels of these leafy vegetables are very low because of lack of availability of high yielding varieties. Leafy vegetables are those crops from which leaves and associated parts are harvested for use as vegetable. The leaves of about 700 different kinds of plants belonging to125 families are consumed in the form of vegetables. The major leafy vegetables grown in the country are amaranth, spinach beet (desi palak), spinach and fenugreek. In addition to this a number of under-utilized annual crops are also grown as leafy vegetables in specific regions. Leafy vegetables are usually grown in kitchen and market gardens. Tender stems and leaves of a number of perennial crops are rich sources of vitamins and minerals and are used for cooking. Though leafy vegetables have high nitrate and oxalate levels, but adverse nutritional effects are not to be feared with a consumption level of 100-200 g per day. The commonly grown major leafy vegetables and their wild relatives are listed below

Introduction Palak (Beta vulgaris L. var. bengalensis), also known as spinach beet or perpetual spinach, Saag, Indian Spinach, beet leaf, Swiss chard and Palongpalang. is a leafy green vegetable that is closely related to Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris). And it belongs to the family Chenopodiaceae. It is a popular and versatile vegetable known for its nutritious leaves and mild flavour. Palak shares similarities with both spinach (Spinacia oleracea) and beetroot (Beta vulgaris). The leaves of palak are tender and similar in appearance to spinach leaves. They are dark green and have a slightly glossy texture. The flavour of palak is milder compared to spinach, with a pleasant earthy taste. This makes it a versatile ingredient that can be used in various culinary preparations. Palak is often grown as a cool-season vegetable, as it can tolerate cool temperatures better than spinach. It is appreciated for its ability to produce a continuous harvest of leaves over an extended period, hence the name “perpetual spinach.” This characteristic makes it a valuable addition to home gardens and commercial production.

Improved Varieties of Leafy Vegetables

A. AMARANTHUS

Leaf vegetables are rich sources of provitamin-A, vitamin-C and minerals like calcium, iron etc. They also provide roughage required in human diet. The Indian Council of Medical Research (1984) recommended a daily intake of 100 g and 40 g of leaf vegetables in the diet of woman and man, respectively. Amaranth, beet leaf, spinach, fenugreek, cabbage etc. are the major leaf vegetables grown in the country. In addition, a number of under-utilized annual crops are also grown as leaf vegetables in specific regions. Tender stems and leaves of a number of perennial crops are rich sources of vitamins and minerals and are used for cooking. The major annual leaf vegetables have a few features in common:

1. Most of leaf vegetables are of short duration and the entire harvest is over within 80-90 days
2. Leaf vegetables are cultivated by direct sowing and by transplanting. In direct sowing, seeds are sown as in nursery and harvested 30 days after. In transplanted method, 25-30 days old seedlings are transplanted at a closer spacing and harvesting is done by frequent clippings or cuttings.

Leafy vegetables are rich source of vitamins like A, C and minerals like calcium and iron. Most of the leafy vegetables are quick growing types and shows good response to manures and fertilizers. Their easiness in cultivation and adaptation to diverse agroclimatic conditions makes it suitable for various cropping systems. Some of them are annual in nature while some others are perennial. Leaves as well as tender stems are uses as vegetable in the cooked form. They are reported to have antinutritional factors, oxalates and nitrates compared to other vegetables. The annual leafy vegetables are widely cultivating in our country and among them, amaranth, palak, spinach and fenugreek are the major ones. These crops are short duration in nature, completes their entire life cycle by 80-90 days and produce good yield and brings monetary returns to farmers in short time.

Amaranth (Amaranth sp.)

It is herbaceous fast growing annual leafy vegetable grown for leaves as well as grains. Vegetable amaranth is reported to be equal or superior in taste to that of spinach. Leaves and succulent stem are good source of vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium and iron and are used as vegetable. High oxalate and nitrate content are reported in some species of amaranth.

The major vegetable species of amaranth cultivating in India is A. ticolor. It is suggested to be originated in South or South east Asia particularly in India. Another vegetable type, A. dubius shows diversity in Central America, Indonesia, Asia and Africa. A. lividus is the popular vegetable type in South and Central Europe. Other leafy species are A. viridis, A. tristis and A. spinosus. A. cruentus, A. hypochondriacus and A. caudatus are cultivating for grain purpose. Taxonomists suggested two sections in Amaranthus namely blitopsis which include leafy types and amaranthus which constitutes grain types.

Project Formulation for Farming-Based Livelihood Systems Project formulation is the process of systematically developing a project idea into a detailed and implementable project plan. It’s like creating a roadmap that outlines what you want to achieve, how you’ll achieve it, and what resources you’ll need. For farming-based livelihoods, this process needs to be particularly sensitive to the unique challenges and opportunities of the agricultural sector.
Here’s a step-by-step overview
1. Situation Analysis (Needs Assessment)
• Identify the Problem/Opportunity: What challenges are the target farmers facing? (e.g., low yields, lack of market access, climate change vulnerability, soil degradation, limited access to credit). Alternatively,
what opportunities exist? (e.g., growing demand for organic produce, new technologies, government subsidies).
• Target Group Identification: Who will benefit from the project? Be specific. (e.g., smallholder farmers in a particular region, women farmers, youth). Understand their current farming practices, income
levels, skills, and access to resources.
• Resource Assessment: What resources are available? (e.g., land, water, labor, existing infrastructure, local knowledge). Assess the quality and quantity of these resources.

Introduction
Listening is a vital communication skill that underpins effective interpersonal and professional interactions. It goes beyond merely hearing sounds; listening involves understanding, interpreting, and responding to messages accurately. This chapter explores learning activities designed to assess and enhance listening skills, offering theoretical insights and practical strategies for educators, trainers, and learners.
Understanding Listening Skills
Listening is a complex process that includes the following components:
1. Receiving: The physiological aspect of hearing sounds.
2. Understanding: Making sense of the words and context.
3. Evaluating: Assessing the content’s relevance and accuracy.
4. Responding: Providing feedback or action based on understanding.
5. Retention: Storing the information for future use.
Listening skills can be classified into
• Active Listening: Focused attention and engagement with the speaker.
• Reflective Listening: Paraphrasing and reflecting to confirm understanding.
• Critical Listening: Evaluating the message’s content critically.

This chapter explores how ergonomic design influences learning, teaching and well-being in schools, colleges and universities. It examines classrooms, laboratories, libraries, study spaces and digital environments as integrated physical and cognitive systems. Appropriate furniture dimensions, adjustable seating, suitable desk heights, lighting, ventilation, acoustics and equipment placement can improve posture, concentration and participation. The chapter also considers anthropometric differences among learners of different ages and abilities. Technology must be incorporated without increasing visual fatigue, physical strain or cognitive overload. By combining human-centred spatial planning with flexible furniture and supportive environmental conditions, educational institutions can create safer, more inclusive and effective settings for both students and teachers.

As we have seen how artificial Intelligence can be useful in agriculture but the nest question always come in mind is that from where and how we can start to learn and what are the model of learning an artificial Intelligence. As Artificial Intelligence is a huge part of Computer Science which means we need an language as medium to perform it and we always prefer Python for that which is very dynamic and easy to learn. In this chapter we will learn about python basics so that in further implementation of artificial Intelligence it will be helpful to us.

I. Introduction

Python is a remarkable language that can claim to be easy and strong. You will be amazed to see how simple it is not to focus on the language you are programming, but on solving the problem. Guido van Rossum was the creator of the Python language which is named after the BBC show “Monty Python’s flying Circus”.

Python is formally introduced as:

“Python is an easy to learn, powerful programming language. It has efficient high-level data structures and a simple but effective approach to object-oriented programming. Python’s elegant syntax and dynamic typing, together with its interpreted nature, make it an ideal language for scripting and rapid application development in many areas on most platforms.”

For economical ration -preparation, selection of cheap feed amongthe locally available sources, is an important point to ponder. For this purpose, a list of available feeds is prepared alongwith their latest costs on dry matter basis. The cost per kgof dry matter is divided by the amount of the nutrient (as a decimal), it will give us a good idea of the :

• Cost of Crude Protein in ??Protein supplements and,

• Cost of Energy in ??Energy feeds.

For example, if alpha alpha hay costs Rs 3.93 per kgof dry matter, the cost per kg of Crude Protein = 3.93/0.171 = Rs 22.98 per kg.

In this way, it is possible to prepare a list of protein sources in the order of “Ranking” from which feeds can be selected at lower costs.

Effect of Differences in Dry Matter

Feeds are purchased on the basis of Dry Matter due to variation of moisture content. For example :

A Corn of 89 % Dry Matter costs Rs 7 per kg,

Another type of corn of 75 % Dry Matter can’t be comparable on this cost This can be done as following 

What is Least Square Method?

The Least Squares Method is used to derive a generalized linear equation between two variables, one of which is independent and the other dependent on the former. The value of the independent variable is represented as the x-coordinate and that of the dependent variable is represented as the y-coordinate in a two-dimensional cartesian coordinate system. Initially, known values are marked on a plot. The plot obtained at this point is called a scatter plot. Then, we try to represent all the marked points as a straight line or a linear equation. The equation of such a line is obtained with the help of the least squares method. This is done to get the value of the dependent variable for an independent variable for which the value was initially unknown. This helps us to fill in the missing points in a data table or forecast the data. The method is discussed in detail as follows. The least-squares method was officially discovered and published by Adrien-Marie Legendre (1805), though it is usually also co-credited to Carl Friedrich Gauss (1809), who contributed significant theoretical advances to the method.

Least Square Method Definition

The least-squares method can be defined as a statistical method that is used to find the equation of the line of best fit related to the given data. This method is called so as it aims at reducing the sum of squares of deviations (residual part) as much as possible. The line obtained from such a method is called a regression line.

10.1 Introduction

Least square theory is a statistical technique used to estimate the parameters involved in the regression model in such a way that the sum of squares of errors (residuals) is minimum (least). We have generally two methods of estimation of population parameters. These are (i) Ordinary least square (O.L.S.) method and (ii) Maximum likelihood (M.L.) method. The method of ordinary least square (O.L.S.) is used extensively in regression analysis primarily because it is intutively appealing and mathematically much simpler than the method of maximum likelihood estimation (M.L.E.). In the context of lineaer regression analysis, the two methods generally give similar results.

Goats are used primarily for milk and meat production, but their skin is also a valuable by- product. Goats are an important source of hides and skin . The term hide is used to denote the outer covering of large animals such as cows, buffaloes, horses ,sheep, camel etc. The term “Skin” is applied to that of smaller animals such as sheep, goats , calves etc. Raw hides and skins are used mainly for the manufacture of leather.Goat skin is in great demand for making leather gloves , shoes , luggage, book covers etc.Goat skin was also used in many of the musical instruments .Goat skin has been used since time immemorial as water-containers. The water containers from goat skin were called “Mushk” and the person carrying such containers as “Bhisti”.Pelt is undressed skin of sheep & goats. To prevent putrefication, the skin is treated as well as preserved by dry salting and are graded according to curled type quality of the skin.

The Leather Industry holds a prominent place in the Indian economy. India produces 13.14% of the goat skin production of the world.This sector is known for its consistency in high export earnings and it is among the top ten foreign exchange earners for the country. With an annual turnover of over US$ 7 billion, the export of leather and leather products increased manifold over the past decades and touched US$ 3.40 billion in 2009-10; recording a cumulative annual growth rate of about 5.43% (5 years).It is estimaed that 72.3 million goat skins were produced in India in 2008 (FAOSTAT). India ranks second among the goat skin producing countries of the world, second only to China. India produced 130 thousand tones of goat skin in 2008 ( FAOSTAT) against China producing 351.7 thousand tones and Pakistan 94 thousand tonnes (FAO Stat).

The major production centers for leather and leather products are located in Tamil Nadu - Chennai, Ambur, Ranipet, Vaniyambadi, Trichy, Dindigul ; West Bengal –Kolkata ; Uttar Pradesh –Kanpur, Agra & Noida ; Maharashtra –Mumbai; Punjab –Jallandhar ; Karnataka –Bangalore ; Andhra Pradesh - Hyderabad ; Haryana - Ambala, Gurgaon, Panchkula and Karnal; Delhi. India is the second largest producer of leather footwear and garments in the world.

Leavening agents produce carbon dioxide which helps to give characteristic structure to bread cakes and biscuits etc. In the case of cakes, leavening is produced by air entrapped in the dough due to the presence of egg in the mix. The important groups of leavening agent’s are l. baker’s yeast 2. Chemical leavening agents

Lectins are sugar-binding proteins or glycoprotein of non-immune origin. In 1954 William C. Boyd alone and then together with Elizabeth Shapleigh introduced term ‘lectin’ from the Latin word lego- ‘chosen’ (from the verb legere ‘to choose’ or ‘pick out’).The earliest description of a lectin is believed to have been given by Peter Hermann Stillmark in his doctoral thesis presented in 1888 to the University of Dorpat. Stillmark isolated ricin, an extremely toxic hemagglutinin, from seeds of the castor plant (Ricinus communis).
History
Lectins, although first discovered more than 100 years ago in plants, and defined by their ability to selectively recognize specific carbohydrate structures, are ubiquitous in living organisms and throughout nature. Long before a deeper understanding of their numerous biological functions, the plant lectins, also known as phytohemagglutinins, were noted for their particularly high specificity for foreign HYPERLINK https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycoconjugate glycoconjugates (e.g. those of fungi, invertebrates, and animals) and used in biomedicine for blood cell testing and in biochemistry for fractionation.
Hundreds of lectins of plant and animal origin have been described, and the list continues to increase. The first lectin to be purified on a large scale and available on a commercial basis was concanavalin A, which is now the mostused lectin for characterization and purification of sugar-containing molecules and cellular structures. The legume lectins are probably the most well-studied lectins.

16.1 INTRODUCTION

The world floriculture business has reached to almost over a $ 40 billion mark. It is continuously going through the rapid transitional changes to have more unique and competitive products of wide choice to the consumers. Netherland is ahead in floriculture trade. Throughout the year, a large number of ornamental commodities are imported in Holland and exported back to the countries for its retail and consumption mostly to the countries in the Gulf, Middle-East Asia and America. According to the statistical estimates worldwide, a large quantity is consumed in US and the other countries. For an example, the US alone consumes 100 lacs of cut flowers a day and approximately 4000 lacs every year, though it ranks only 17^th in per capita cut-flower consumption. The average Swiss spends Rs 4500 a year on flowers, nearly four times than that spent by the average American besides the fact that the consumption of fresh cut flower and foliage plant is on manifold increase every year resulting in the competition worldwide for growing of exportable eco-friendly products. At the same time there is great environmental consciousness towards transforming floriculture with “natural and unspoiled” system of having the exportable produce into a mass and its ease to transport to any distant market. The system relies greatly on the industry with extensive network of breeders, greenhouse managers, field workers, auction houses, sales representatives, shippers, and florists to offer consumers a variety of choices matching their taste. This is the fact that in the recent times, the commercial growers don’t rely on the nature to introduce the genetic mutation that will make them millionaires but depends on the art and scientific knowhow to create a novelty in its own. This has resulted in the seriousness and painstaking effort of the growers to produce the plants in new forms and shape to put forward a new plant with extra-ordinary marketable characteristics every year, e.g. compact chrysanthemum, kalanchoe, bromeliads, orchids, etc (Plate1) are some of the common products with an unusual and eye-catching hue in the European markets. Similarly, the consumers can purchase gerberas with blooms as wide as salad plates and roses with yard-long stems perfectly suited for valentine-day gifts which mainly they get produced under the specific and artificial environment created for a specific growth stages of the plant.

The landscape gardening for aesthetic appreciation is an integral part of the progress achieved through the growing world floriculture business that has reached a $ 40 billion mark and valueless aesthetic emotional gains. The industry is continuously rising through transitional changes to have more accepted and unique applications as a wide and economic choice to the consumers with regards to the energy saving in the system. The use of energy for sustenance of the landscape plants before and after planting can be a benchmark in time to come as no one can believe that the plants instead can grow with still better traits either be it the foliage colour, variegation, shape, size and or form beside the fact that the consumption of such altered/compact plants has increased manifold in house, gardens, parks and indoors with a large number of products worldwide in a eco-friendly manner.

At the same time there is great environmental consciousness towards transforming landscape gardening with more natural and unspoiled system of growing plants and maintaining them in the landscape as perennial ones. The system being independent of distance of use or application offers an ease of transport into a mass for large-scale uniform planting. This is the fact that in the recent times, the commercial growers do not rely on the nature to introduce the genetic mutation that will make them millionaires but depends on the art and scientific knowhow to create a novelty in its own. This has resulted in the seriousness and painstaking effort of the growers to produce the plants round the year in new forms and shapes to put forward a new plant with extra-ordinary marketable characteristics every year, e.g. compact chrysanthemum, kalanchoe, bromeliads, orchids, etc are some of the common products with an unusual and eye-catching hue in the auction markets. Similarly, a large number of annual and perennial plants perfectly suited for various kind of landscaping, slope, soil types and moisture regimes under the specific and artificial environment created for a specific growth of the plant.

The leek is a centuries-old crop native to the eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East. The plant is linked to the onion, and its flavour is mild, sweet, and onion-like. Leek stalks are commonly used in European soups and stews, particularly as a side dish with potatoes, and can be cooked whole as a vegetable. It is a non-bulb producing onion family member farmed for blanched stem and leaves. It is eaten fresh or combined into salads, and it is cooked as a flavouring in soups and stews. It is not grown commercially in India, although it is a popular vegetable in a kitchen garden. The climate and soil conditions are the same as for onion.

Botany and taxonomy: The leek is a vegetable that is a cultivar of Allium ampeloprasum, often known as the broadleaf wild leek. 

Introduction 
The transformation of governance through digital means represents one of the most consequential shifts in contemporary public administration. Digital governance or e-governance entails strategically applying information and communication technologies (ICTs) to enhance the accessibility, efficiency, transparency, and responsiveness of government functions and public service delivery. In India, this digital shift has accelerated over the past two decades, driven by imperatives to modernise the state apparatus, promote inclusive development, and meet the rising expectations of a digitally literate citizenry. A complex interplay of demographic diversity, federal administrative structures, and asymmetries in socio-economic development shapes India’s trajectory toward digital governance. The proliferation of mobile devices, growth in internet penetration, and public investments in digital infrastructure have enabled a gradual shift from paper-based systems to platform-based governance. Concurrently, global paradigms such as open government, digital inclusion, and citizen-centric innovation, captured in international indices like the UN E-Government Development Index and the World Bank’s GovTech Maturity Index, have influenced national aspirations and strategy formulation. However, these technological and global catalysts can only be transformative when embedded within a coherent legal and policy framework that ensures institutional legitimacy, citizen trust, and systemic accountability. In this regard, digital governance’s legal and policy foundations are critical for establishing enabling conditions for its practical and equitable implementation. As highlighted by Sachdeva (2002), the transition to digital modes of governance requires not only the removal of outdated regulatory provisions but also enacting new laws on digital authentication, electronic records, data protection, cybercrime, and privacy. Additionally, procedural simplification through single-window systems, interoperability standards, and e-payment protocols is essential to reduce administrative friction and promote

As the aquarium industry expands, its legal, ethical, and environmental dimensions have gained increasing importance. Responsible and sustainable fishkeeping hinges on a clear understanding of wildlife regulations, species preservation, animal rights, and the potential ecological impact of aquarium activities.
In India, the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 forbids the capture and trade of specific native species. Breeding or selling fish such as Channa species, Tor species, or reptiles like the Red Sand Boa is deemed illegal unless special authorization is obtained. Introducing invasive species into natural ecosystems is also regulated, as such activities can disrupt ecological balances and cause long-term damage.
Globally, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) monitors and controls the international trade of vulnerable species such as seahorses, various corals, and marine turtles. Anyone involved in import or export must follow strict documentation, permitting, and inspection protocols. Environmental concerns linked to the trade include destructive collection methods, reef degradation, and improper disposal of fish or water into natural environments. Responsible aquarists are encouraged to prioritize captive-bred fish, buy only from sustainable sources, and adopt proper tank management and waste disposal practices.
Ethically, aquarists must avoid animal mistreatment by preventing overcrowding, offering suitable tank conditions, and ensuring the health and welfare of all aquatic life. Awareness campaigns, effective law enforcement, and the promotion of sustainable practices can transform fishkeeping into a tool for conservation, public education, and sustainable livelihoods.

I. ROLE OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

The international community has set itself the target of reducing the proportion of people below poverty line to half by 2015, along with associated specific targets for improving health and education and environmental sustainability. The Millennium Development Goals, adopted at various international fora, recognize the crucial importance of reducing poverty and hunger, improving health and education, and ensuring environmental sustainability. It is important to know whether and how intellectual property rights (IPRs) could play a role in helping the world meet these targets — in particular by reducing poverty, helping to combat diseases, enhancing access to education and contributing to sustainable development, protecting our cultural heritage, safeguarding the food security for the country. It is also necessary to deliberate whether and how they create obstacles to meeting those targets and, if so, how those obstacles can be removed.

There are strong views from both sides on the protection and enforcement of IPRs though there is no data to check these views objectively. Some argue strongly that IPRs are necessary to stimulate economic growth, which in turn, helps in poverty reduction. By stimulating invention and new technologies, IPRs help to increase agricultural or industrial production, promote domestic and foreign investment, facilitate technology transfer and improve the availability of medicines necessary to combat diseases. They are also of the view that there is no reason why a system that has worked for developed countries would not work for developing countries. Others argue equally vehemently the opposite. IPRs do little to stimulate invention in developing countries, because the necessary human and technical capacity may be absent there. In assessing these opposing arguments, it is important to remember the technological disparity between developed and developing countries as a group. What role the intellectual property can play to plug this gap is a serious subject for every developing nation? For this, it is also pertinent to know about the IPRs, the challenges they pose to the legal system in general and to the Indian legal system in particular, and their basic rationale to take a considered approach in their implementation.

Introduction

Agribusiness refers to the industry that deals with farming and the selling of agricultural products, including the cultivation of crops, their processing, and their distribution to retailers. Producing and distributing crops, agrichemicals, fodder, breeding, farm equipment, seed supply, raw and processed commodities of food and fibre, warehousing, transporting, packing, marketing, retailing, soil testing, and testing for nutrient deficiencies are all part of the agribusiness industry.

It's important for an excellent brand name to provide a solid basis on which a company can grow. Companies need to identify who they are trying to sell to. Will people have no trouble pronouncing it? The tongue shouldn't have to work too hard to say it. Can you pronounce the name easily? Your brand name needs to be audible to consumers. Have you tested the name's spelling ability?

Choosing what aspect of agriculture or agribusiness you want to enter is the f irst step. So, you can't make a call like this until you have a firm grasp on your company's long-term goals, operational strategy, and financial situation. You can still enter the market if you aren't an expert in the equipment, products, grains, soil, seeds, or plants involved; nevertheless, you should go in with your eyes wide open, a well-thought-out business plan, and a competent team.

8.1 Key legal statutes and regulatory foundations
Various policy measures were also undertaken by the Government of India in due course of time. The Government of India enacted four science policies after gaining independence, i.e. Scientific Policy Resolution (1958), Technology Policy Statement (1983), Science and Technology Policy (2003) and Science Technology and Innovation Policy (2013). The 1983 Technology Policy Statement possessed a simple goal of creating indigenous technology and boosting efficient absorption and adaptation of imported technologies suited to the nation’s priorities and. The Technology Policy Statement of 1983 was followed up through the establishment of the Technology Information Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC), an autonomous organization entirely owned by the Government of India under the Department of Science and Technology during 1988. TIFAC also offers some funding and supports development and commercialization of technologies through the home-grown technology scheme, among its other operations. The Technology Development Board Act (1995) was also a significant policy move of the government in the same direction. Also in recent times, the Government of India also unveiled its own National IPR Policy 2016 with the motto cum slogan “Creative India, Innovative India”. In addition, the policy is aligned to a number of other schemes of the Indian Government like “Make in India”, “Atal Innovation Mission”, “Start-Up India” and “Stand-Up India”, all aimed at encouraging creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship in the nation.

Introduction

Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) are the organizations engaged in particular plethora of activities aimed at protecting and promoting the varied interests of the people. As the name suggests, NGOs are the state independent voluntary groups working towards various social causes – ‘Charitable Purposes’. Section 2 (15) of the Income Tax Act 1961 explains charitable purpose as those activities aimed at the relief of the poor, education, yoga, medical relief, preservation of environment including the watersheds, wild life forests and preservation of monuments or places or objects of artistic or historic interest and the advancement of any other object of general public utility. These ‘Not–for Profit’ organizations differ from other business as the main aim of such ventures is charity not generating profits. These NGOs are prohibited from distributing the income generated from their working among its members. There is no single consolidated act dealing with the formation and registration of NGOs. This is because an NGO is an umbrella term for all the charitable ventures. An NGO, in itself, can have various structures. These can be registered as societies, trusts and as private limited. Non-profit companies commonly referred to as section 8 companies therefore an NGO can be registered under any of the three acts i.e., Company Act (2013), Societies Registration Act (1860) and Indian Trust Act (1862).

Rivers are vital ecological corridors that sustain biodiversity, regulate the water cycle and underpin human civilization by providing water, food, transportation and energy. In India, river ecosystems face mounting threats from pollution, over-extraction, habitat degradation and climate change, necessitating a robust constitutional, legal and policy framework for their protection and sustainable management. The Indian Constitution, through Articles 48A and 51A (g), alongside judicial interpretations of Article 21, has elevated environmental protection (including river conservation) to a fundamental right, reinforced by landmark Supreme Court judgments that embed principles such as polluter pays and the precautionary approach. Key national policies, including the National Water Policy, National River Conservation Plan, and flagship initiatives like Namami Gange, emphasize integrated river basin management, participatory governance, and community engagement. Despite these advances, challenges persist due to fragmented institutional arrangements, enforcement gaps, persistent pollution and the impacts of climate change. Future directions call for legislative reforms, empowered river basin authorities, technological innovations and greater public participation to ensure the ecological integrity and long-term sustainability of India’s rivers for present and future generations.

The National Food Security Bill 2011, which is now on the website of the Union Ministry of Food and Consumer Affairs for public comments, aims to make the Right to Food a legal right. During the last seven years, the country has witnessed a transition from political patronage to legal entitlements in the case of education, information, work and land rights in tribal areas. When finally enacted, the Food Security Bill will be the brightest jewel in the crown of Indian democracy. Therefore, public scrutiny of the draft Bill is important. The draft Bill mentions that its aim is “to provide for food and nutritional security in human life-cycle approach by ensuring access to adequate quantity of quality food at affordable prices, for people to live a life with dignity”. Unfortunately the Bill is its present form will not be able to fulfill this inspiring objective.

The legal commitment contained in the Bill implies that every child, woman and man should have physical and economic access to balanced diet on the basis of a life-cycle approach, i.e., from conception to cremation. Nutrition security involves access not only to the needed calories and protein, but also to micro-nutrients like iron, iodine, zinc, vitamin A, and vitamin B12. In addition, clean drinking water, sanitation and primary health care are essential for ensuring that food is properly assimilated in the body.

Introduction

Export of quality seafood products is important to have a success in international marketing. Exporters must be quality conscious and the Governments must insist on quality control and inspection. The seafood export industry in India is over 50 years old. Seafood contributes 10% of the total exports and nearly 20% of all agricultural exports. In the year 2022-23, India exported 17,35,286 MT seafood to more than 100 countries worth US $8.09 billion equivalent to Rs. 63,969.14 crore. There are over 150 fish processing facilities approved by the European Union out of the existing 350 processing facilities. The Export Inspection Council and the Marine Products Export Development Authority are working very closely with the fish processing industries for the growth of seafood exports.

The Government of India enacted the Export (Quality Control and Inspection) Act, 1963 for the development of export trade through quality control and inspection. It empowers the Government to notify the products intended for compulsory quality control and inspection prior to their export. It specifies the type of quality control required for the notified products. It recognizes standard specifications for a notified product. It prohibits the export of notified products that are not complying with export conditions. It creates a machinery for quality control and take measures to protect markets for Indian commodities. As the first step, Export Inspection Council (the Council) was established on 1st January 1964 for implementation of various provisions of the Export (Quality Control & Inspection) Act, 1963.

Introduction

This led to an extended debate and international co-operation in the recognition of plant-related intellectual property rights, resulting in a greater attention being paid to questions of ownership of genetic resources. At the same time concerns for sustainable use of biological diversity were also raised.

One of the major events was the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) which came into force in 1993, which was adopted during the Rio Earth Summit of the United Nations. It was the first legally binding institutional mechanism, providing for conservation and sustainable use of all biological diversity and intends to establish the process of the equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of biodiversity.

The Convention on Biological Diversity

The CBD was conceived in the 1980s and was negotiated under the leadership of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). It was adapted in June 1992 at Rio de Janeiro, at the Earth Summit, and is effective since December 1993.

4.1. Introduction

Presently, in the world, there are 195 countries according to the United Nations, and the number would even go up to 247 if we consider the disputed territories like Isle of Man, Hong Kong, etc. (United Nations, 2016) (Kershner, 2020). But the majority of the countries are still struggling to provide basic life-supporting amenities like nutrition, shelter, and employment. Conjointly, termed as emerging and developing countries such as India, Vietnam, Venezuela, Utopia, etc. (Ahmed and Shimada, 2019). Most of the developing countries are situated mainly in the continent of Africa, Asia and South America. They have got independence for the European countries like England, France, Portugal and Spain in the mid and late 20th century. 

Food security, nutritional security, sustainability and profitability are the main foci ofpresent agricultural scenario in India. In the absence of additional land for bringing under plough vertical growth in agriculture through intensive cropping and enhanced productivity becomes inevitable. Intensification of agriculture to meet the growing needs of the burgeoning population has brought with it numerous productivity related constraints. It has triggered multiple nutrient deficiencies in soil and this has raised doubts on the soils capacity to sustain anticipated production levels. One of the key inputs in enhancing and maintaining the productivity ofintensified agricultural systems is chemical fertilizer which provides nutrients in readily available form. But long term experiments on various cropping systems at various agroecological regions and soil types revealed that continuous use of chemical fertilizers in unbalanced and indiscriminate manner deteriorates the soil health and leads to deleterious effect on long term soil fertility and yield sustainability. Apart from the soil productivity issue, the use of chemical fertilizer is also becoming more and more costly due to scarcity during peak demand. The excessive use of chemical fertilizers is not only costly but they pollute the production environment (Singh et al., 2005; Dwivedi et al., 2003).

In the coming decades, a major issue in designing sustainable agriculture system will be the management and rational use of organic inputs such as animal manure, green manure, crop residues and biofertilizers etc. (Powlson, 1994). Long term studies indicated that current fertilizer recommendations are inadequate for maintaining yields (Bhandari et al., 2000; Singh and Mishra, 2010; Tiwari et al., 2006). It is, therefore, to sustain high crop yield without deterioration of soil fertility it is important to apply required amount of plant nutrients through fertilizers in combination with organic sources, crop residues, biofertilizers etc.

Introduction

Embarking on the journey of legume cultivation in India reveals a nuanced landscape marked by both challenges and promising horizons. The agricultural scenario is akin to orchestrating a symphony, where legumes play a vital role, contributing melodies of resilience and significance. Unveiling this leguminous symphony in India is an exploration into the intricate interplay of obstacles and potential triumphs within the agricultural sector. As we delve into an overview of legumes, commonly known as pulse crops, their significance in Indian agriculture becomes apparent. Belonging to the Fabaceae family, these plants possess a distinctive feature - the ability to harness nitrogen from the atmosphere. This unique characteristic renders them pivotal components in sustainable agricultural systems, impacting not only food and nutritional security but also influencing the broader scope of soil fertility enhancement and economic prosperity. The journey through legume cultivation in India unfolds as a harmonious narrative, weaving together the challenges faced and the promising prospects that lie ahead in this agricultural symphony (Sow and Ranjan, 2021).

Among thirty major cropping systems in the country, which contribute significantly to the national food basket, the majority are cereal-based. In fact, continuous cropping of cereal-based systems during last three decades has resulted in second generation problems and the sustainability of these systems is under threat. The major challenge is to produce more from each unit of land on the one hand and to sustain soil health on the other. The depletion of soil fertility by the intensive cereal-cereal production systems is considered to be a major cause of the yield decline. For example, a rice-wheat cropping system (RWCS) yielding 7 t/ha of paddy and 4 t/ha of wheat removes 315 kg nitrogen (N)/ ha, 28 kg phosphorus (P)/ ha and 333 kg potassium (K)/ ha, and significant amounts of micro-nutrients (Hegde and Dwivedi, 1992). These off-takes often exceed fertiliser input in many Indian states. Refinement of nutrient management strategies would help maintain the crop productivity and soil fertility, but other rotational strategies could also help especially in situations where greater fertiliser use may be uneconomic or environmentally unacceptable. Legume crops fix atmospheric N and enrich soil fertility, and could help to sustain the long-term productivity of cereal-based cropping systems. Depending on the soil and ecological stresses, a cropping system can be diversified using legumes under different mode. Results from the All-India Coordinated Project on Integrated Farming Systems (AICRP-IFS) of Indian Council of Agricultural Research show consistently better productivity with inclusion of legumes in cropping systems. The benefits of legumes in rotation are not solely due to biological nitrogen fixation but also because it increased nutrient availability, improved soil structure, reduced disease incidence and increased mycorhyizal colonization (Wani et al., 1995). Inclusion of pulses as intercrops in sequential as well as intercropping systems would not only make the country self reliant but also help in improving the soil health. Series of experiments are being conducted under (AICRP-IFS) and elsewhere in the country to identify need based cropping systems for different agro-climatic zones of India. The pre-dominent cropping systems involving legumes as a strategy for nutrient management through different approaches are being discussed here for ready reference of researchers, planners and extension workers.

Peas and beans belonging to the family Fabaceae (Syn. Leguminosae) are delicious and preferred vegetables grown throughout the world. These include cool season vegetables like pea, French bean, lima bean, broad bean and tropical vegetables like cowpea, hyacinth bean, winged bean, jack bean, sword bean etc.  These are integral components of sustainable agriculture due to their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen and to improve soil properties. Legume vegetables are rich in protein and essential amino acids and have significant role in combating malnutrition among poor people and vegetarians.

Peas and beans belonging to the family Fabaceae (Syn. Leguminosae) are delicious and preferred vegetables grown throughout the world. These include cool season vegetables like pea, French bean, lima bean, broad bean and tropical vegetables like cowpea, hyacinth bean, winged bean, jack bean, sword bean etc. These are integral components of sustainable agriculture due to their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen and to improve soil properties. Legume vegetables are rich in protein and essential amino acids and have significant role in combating malnutrition among poor people and vegetarians.

Common features of legume vegetables are summarized below:

1. All legume vegetables are self-pollinated due to cleistogamous nature. Flowers are zygomorphic with papilionaceous corolla, mono-adelphous or di-adelphous stamens.
2. All are direct sown crops and do not respond to transplanting. Since seed size is comparatively bigger and they are closely planted, a high seed rate is required for most of crops.

Soil-rejuvenation power of legumes in crop rotations has been known in several parts of the world since ages. It is mentioned in the Indian agriculture of the Chalcolithic period (ca 1000 BC) (Raychaudhuri and Mira, 1993), in Chinese agriculture in the Han dynasty (ca 2nd century) (Hsu, 1980) and in Roman agriculture (White, 1970). Legumes can be ?tted in cropping systems in India in a number of ways, such as, a crop in a cropping system, a catch crop in an intensive cropping system, an intercrop and as a green manure. A brief discussion on these follows.

Enhancement of population is a global issue and the expected world population will be 9.7 billion in 2050 (UN, 2019). Under the situation, achievement of food and nutritional security is a major target with reduction of GHGs to the atmosphere and mitigation of ill effects of climate change. Modern agriculture is responsible for emission of GHGs in many ways and one of them is production of synthetic N fertilizer. There is no doubt about the fact that chemical N fertilizers enhance crop yield but it is at the cost of atmospheric equilibrium and agricultural sustainability cannot be achieved by this practice (Bedoussac et al. 2015; Layek et al., 2018).

Keys to Genera
Flowers zygomorphic, stamens definite, corolla papillonacious, petals imbricate: 1I, 1O, 3 IO
Group I:    Herbs or shrubs, leaves imparipinnate, leaf lets entire, pods usually dehiscent, or if indehiscent usually small, a few seeded. Cyamopsis
Group II:    Herbs low or climbing, leaves paripinnate, leaflets ending in a tendril or bristle, style bearded, pods dehiscent.
Sub group 1: Staminal tube oblique at mouth, pod compressed. Vicia
Sub group 2: Staminal tube truncate (cutting off) at mouth, pods torpid.  Pisum
Group III:     Climbing or prostrate and rarely erect
Sub group 1: style bearded, stamen diadelphous
Sub-sub group: stigma terminal: Dolichos
Sub-sub group: Stigma oblique: Keel spiral : Phaseolus
Keel not spiral: Vigna
Sub group 2: Style not bearded, stamen monodelphous: Canavalia
Group IV:    Trees or shrubs, some times climbing, pods indehiscent: Psophocarpus

Garden Pea
It is cool season crop cultivated throughout the world. It is extensively grown in temperate zone and is restricted to cooler altitudes in tropics and winter season in sub tropics. It is rich source of proteins (25.6%), amino acids and sugars. It goes well with other vegetables in vegetable dish.

Legumes
Mutualistic bacteria, such as Rhizobium, form symbiotic relationships with leguminous plants, including various species within the pea family. The Leguminoseae family is particularly recognized for its ability to engage in symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria and its resilience to drought conditions. Among pasture legumes, clovers (Trifolium spp.) are predominant, with red clover (Trifolium pratense) and white clover (Trifolium repens) being the most prevalent species in cooler, wetter regions like Europe and New Zealand. Clovers exhibit a higher protein and mineral content compared to grasses, particularly in terms of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, copper and cobalt, although their nutritional value tends to diminish as they mature.
The sugars found in clovers are akin to those in grasses, with sucrose being the primary sugar. While fructans are typically absent, starch is present, with concentrations in dried red clover leaves reaching up to 50 g/kg DM. In the UK, lucerne is characterized by its high fiber content, especially in the stems, which can reach crude fiber levels of 500 g/kg DM at the late flowering stage. Lucerne cultivars are categorized based on their flowering times, with early-flowering varieties recommended for UK conditions. These varieties generally bloom in the second week of June; however, to ensure acceptable digestibility, the initial harvest should occur at the early bud stage (end of May), when the anticipated digestible organic matter (DOM) content is between 620 and 640 g/kg DM. Subsequent cuts should be made at intervals of 6 to 8 weeks, yielding DOM values of 560 to 600 g/kg DM. In Britain, the limited area of lucerne cultivated is primarily harvested for silage or artificial drying, whereas in other regions, particularly the USA, where it is referred to as alfalfa, the crop is also utilized for grazing. Berseem, also known as Egyptian clover (Trifolium alexandrinum), is a significant leguminous plant cultivated primarily in the Mediterranean region and India. Its rapid growth during the cooler winter months in subtropical climates is highly regarded, along with its ability to recover effectively after being cut or grazed. The nutritional profile
of berseem is comparable to that of lucerne. Additionally, crops such as peas (Pisum sativum) and faba beans (Vicia faba) are occasionally cultivated as green fodder. When harvested at the early flowering stage, these crops exhibit a nutritive value akin to that of other legumes.

Leguminous vegetables include peas, French bean, Lima bean, broad bean, cowpea, hyacinth bean, winged bean etc. They belong to the family Fabaceae (Syn. Leguminosae). These are cultivated either as sole crop is sometimes as intercrop. In some areas they are used in backyard cultivation also. Most of them are short duration crops and are self pollinated.

8.1. Peas (Pisum sativum L.)

The pea (Pisum sativum L.) is a very common nutritioius vegetable grown in cool season throughout the world. It belongs to the family Fabaceae (Syn. Leguminaceae) and genus Pisum. A pea is most commonly the small spherical seed or the seedpod of the pod fruit Pisum sativum L. The pea cultivars are grouped into several groups based on shape of seed, plant height, maturity and use of pods. This crop is cultivated for its tender and immature pods for use as vegetable and mature dry pods for use as a pulse. In both the cases the seeds are separated and used as vegetable or pulse. The central Asia is regarded as the place of origin for all legumes including pea. Based on the genetic diversity, Central Asia, the Near East, Abyssinia and the Mediterranean is considered to be its centre of Origin. Cultivated garden pea is not seen in wild state and it might have been originated from wild field pea or other related species. In India it widely cultivated states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Orissa and Karnataka. Followed by Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Assam and Jharkhand.

Cultivars/Varietie: Peas varieties are grouped based on maturity (early, mid season and late) plant height (Bush or dwarf, medium tall and tall). The major cultivars under cultivation in different parts of the country are Arkel, Bonneville, Harbhajan, FC-1, Arka Ajit, UN 53-6 (whole edible type), Jawahar Matar 1, Jawahar Matar 2, Jawahar Matar 3, Jawahar Matar 4, Jawahar Matar 5, Jawahar Peas 83, JP 4 (JM 6), JP 19, Lincoin, Mattar Ageta 6, Pantnagar Matar 2, Pant Uphar (IP 3), P 88, PRS 4,Ooty-1 and VL 3.

Leguminous vegetables include wide range of vegetables which can grow in climatic conditions extending from warm to cool weather. They are rich in protein, essential amino acids and fibre hence, recognized as an important component in ensuring nutritional security. They are growing for its pods for vegetable purpose, seeds as pulse or for dual purpose. They are excellent green manures that fix atmospheric nitrogen into soil and cultivation of leguminous vegetable crops is recommended as an integral component in sustainable soil fertility management. Leguminous vegetables include tropical types namely cowpea, hyacinth bean, winged bean, jack bean, sword bean while, cool season legumes include French bean, garden peas, lima bean and broad bean. They are mostly self-pollinated owing to its cleistogamous flowers. Pole or bush types are available in these crops and all are seed propagated. Among the different leguminous crops, French bean, garden peas and cowpea are under commercial cultivation while other leguminous vegetables are region specific in cultivation.

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)

Cowpea is a warm season legume grown both as vegetable crop as well as pulse crop. Tender pods are used as vegetable and dry beans are used as pulse. Cowpea is mainly growing for its seeds as pulse than as vegetable crop. The vegetable types bear stringless pods of more than 30 cm long, fleshy pericarp and higher monosaccharide to polysaccharide ratio. Cowpea is believed to be originated and domesticated in West or Central Africa especially Nigeria where diversity was noticed abundant. The cultivated cowpea, Vigna unguiculata is divided into different cultivar groups viz., pulse type as Vigna unguiculata var. unguiculata, Vigna unguiculata var. cylindrica or var. biflora as dual purpose type for fodder and dry seeds and vegetable type as Vigna unguiculata var. sesquipedalis (yardlong bean/string bean/asparagus bean). The cultivar groups, biflora and sesquipedalis are suggested to be originated from ssp. unguiculata in India and South East Asia respectively.

Low External Input Agriculture (LEIA)

It is a form of agriculture wherein the use of external inputs including chemical inputs is minimized and production is kept sustainable. It uses synthetic fertilizers or chemical pesticides below rates commonly recommended by the Extension workers. There is no elimination of these materials. Any system that reduces purchased chemical inputs can be called low-input farming. Yields are maintained through greater emphasis on crop rotation, crop residues, animal manures, biofertilizers, IPM, IWM and utilization of on-farm resources and management. Locally available resources are used by maximizing the complementary and synergistic effects of different components of the farming systems. There is use of external inputs in a complementary way. Main advantages of this type of agriculture are: