eChapters

Indian agriculture – the back bone of our economy accounts for about 65 per cent of the country’s employment and 20 per cent the total export earnings. Despite a drastic increase in the food grains production during the last five decades, the profit margins of farmers particularly small and medium farmers has declined due to certain serious problems like declining water table, deterioration in soil health, outbreaks of new pests diseases and weeds, and environmental pollution etc. With the globalization of market, the farmers will have to change themselves from mere producers’ in the domestic markets to producer cum seller in a wider market sense in order to best realize the returns for his investments, risks and efforts. Now the focus should be on high quality produce, low cost of production and high productivity.

Meaning of Advertising

According to Concise Oxford Dictionary, the word to advertise means to make generally or publicly with a view to increasing sales. The word ‘advertising’ is derived from the Latin word ‘advertese’ which means ‘to turn (the mind) to’. Advertising means providing adequate knowledge about some special product/service/idea to potential consumers so that they are stimulated to buy it. Adequate knowledge about a product means to let people know the name of the product, its function, size, price and place of its availability. The organizations providing service or idea give information regarding where, how and on what conditions their service or idea can be made available and how the same can be helpful to the people. Today is the age of competition. Consumers buy commodities after careful consideration. Under the circumstances, manufacturers are faced with the problem of how to motivate the consumers to buy their product. To find a solution to this problem, manufacturers make use of advertising.

Meaning of Marketing

Marketing is an important function of management. Marketing makes the economy strong. Production is meaningless unless the goods and services are exchanged for money. Marketing is related with movement of good from producer to consumer.

Various people have defined marketing differently. A majority of people consider it as selling while some people prefer to call it shopping. Similarly, some people call it merchandising. All these meanings of marketing are partially correct.

Marketing is the sum total of all those activities which move goods and services from the producers to the consumers.

Introduction

Agriculture, in most developing countries is the major industry. More than 50 percent of the labour is working in this sector and its industrial and commercial branches. In these countries, also more than 50 percent of the households‘ incomes are spent for low quality and value foods. Inefficiency of the agricultural products marketing system is the starting place of these problems.

Introduction

Agriculture is an important sector for countries like India, who have majority of its population, directly or indirectly depend upon agriculture. The sector which feeds the majority of population of any country needs special attention for its all round development. Marketing is such a crucial aspect related to agriculture that is probably not developed in any of such countries which largely depends upon agriculture. Underdeveloped and lack of resources are the main reasons behind the underdeveloped nature of agricultural marketing. In simple terms, agricultural marketing means the buying and selling of agricultural produce. The Indian council of Agricultural Research defined involvement of three important functions, namely assembling, preparation for consumption and distribution.

Introduction

The National Commission on Agriculture defined agricultural marketing as a process which starts with a decision to produce a saleable farm commodity and it involves all aspects of market structure of system, both functional and institutional, based on technical and economic considerations and includes pre and post- harvest operations, assembling, grading, storage, transportation and distribution. The Indian council of Agricultural Research defined involvement of three important functions, namely (a) assembling (concentration) (b) preparation for consumption (processing) and (c) distribution.

In the recent years, rural markets have acquired significance in developing countries like India and China, as well as the overall growth of the economy has resulted into substantial increase in the purchasing power of the rural communities. On account of technological change during 1966-67, rural areas are consuming a large quantity of industrial and urban manufactured products. In this context, a special marketing strategy i.e. rural marketing has taken place. Sometimes, rural marketing is mystified with agricultural marketing the later denotes marketing of agricultural commodities of the rural areas to the urban consumers or industrial consumers, whereas rural marketing involves delivering manufactured or processed inputs or services to rural producers or consumers or rural marketing determines the carrying out of business activities bringing in the flow of goods from urban sectors to the rural regions of the country as well as the marketing of various products manufactured by the non-agricultural workers from rural to urban areas. Also, when we consider the situation of developing countries, there is a picture that comes out, huge market for the development products as well as the labour support.

Introduction

Labour markets, poverty and inequality in the growth process
 
The theoretical discussion on the changes in the incidence of poverty and inequality in the growth process of agrarian economies from low levels of income has been a major topic in development economics. The impact of growth is delineated through the labour market, and any predictions about the impact on poverty and inequality must be based on some implicit or explicit view of the structure of labour markets and their functioning.

Introduction

The term value chain was first used and popularized by Michael Porter in his book “Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance” in 1985.

The value chain concept separates useful activities which allow the company as a whole to gain competitive advantage from the wasteful activities (which hinder the company from getting a lead in the market). Focusing on the value-creating activities could give the company many advantages. For example, the ability to charge higher prices; lower cost of manufacture; better brand image, faster response to threats or opportunities.

Introduction

Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy and helps the system as a whole for socio-economy development of the country. Despite 51 per cent of arable land of total geographical area and about 100 million hectares of potential irrigated area, the highest for any country in the world, unfortunately the contribution of agriculture to the grass domestic product is as low as 22 per cent. India is endowed with a wide spectrum of agro climatic conditions and a large variety of fruit crops ranging from tropical, sub­tropical and temperate are grown. In India, the area under fruit crops is 3.5 Mha with a production 45MT which accounts 9.6 % of total worlds production and ranks 2nd in fruit production (Anon., 2005). The country has become self-sufficient in food grains production, second largest producer of fruits and vegetables, but still the per capita consumption per day is hardly of the order of 70 g for fruits and 140 g for vegetables.

Organizations Indebtedness Towards Society

The organizations in the present world operate as an open system by having ongoing interactions with the society for their existence and effective functioning. There is an interdependence between corporations and societies and as such, company’s activities have a direct impact on the communities with which they work.  As a part of such interactions, the organizations use valuable resources of the society, for producing goods and services, which are exchanged with the customers for a profit margin. Due to these exchanges, the business organizations take away the profits reflecting the debt they owe to the society and the world.

Introduction

Survey sampling is a method of drawing inference about the characteristics of a population by securing a sample. Sample survey techniques are extensively used by government bodies throughout the world and researchers for assessing, for planning and for projection future economy.In a sample survey, the final step of the analysis and drawing inferences from a sample to a population is a very vital and fascinating issue. Since the results of the survey are the basis for policy making, it is the most essential part of the sample survey and should be handled carefully.The object of designing a sample survey is to minimize the error in the final estimates. Any survey involving data collection and analysis of the data is subject to a variety of errors. The errors may be classified into two groups viz., (i) non-sampling errors (ii) sampling errors.

Agriculture occupies a significant place in the economy of India. It contributes nearly 20% to the Gross Domestic Product [GDP] and provides employment to around two-thirds of nation’s population Agricultural commodity exports account for nearly 20 per cent of the total export earnings of the country. The agricultural produce sector has been one of the most important components of Indian economy. Considerable progress has since been achieved in scaling new heights in the production of foodgrains, commercial crops like cotton, sugarcane, tea etc., fruits, vegetables and milk. The increasing trend of agricultural production has brought, in its wake, new challenges in terms of finding market for the marketed surplus. There is also pressure from all segments of agricultural economy to respond to the challenges and opportunities that the global markets offer in the liberalized trade regime. To benefit the farming community from the new global market access opportunities, the internal agricultural marketing system in the country also needs to be integrated and strengthened. In particular the market system has to be revitalized to a) provide incentives to farmer to produce more; b) convey the changing needs of the consumers to the producers to enable production r burning; c) foster true competition among the market players and d) to enhance the share of farmers in the ultimate price of his agricultural produce.

Price mechanism is an economic term that refers to the buyers and sellers who negotiate prices of goods or services depending on demand and supply. A price mechanism or market-based mechanism refers to a wide variety of ways to match up buyers and sellers through price rationing.An example of a price mechanism uses announced bid and ask prices. Generally speaking, when two parties wish to engage in a trade, the purchaser will announce a price he is willing to pay (the bid price) and seller will announce a price he is willing to accept (the ask price).

Sugar originated from the Arabic word “sharkara” and is derived from the sanskrit world “sharkara”. Sugar is an important part of the daily diet and  forming a class of edible substances which includes  sucrose, lactose, and fructose. It provides the human body with requisite carbohydrates and is basically extracted from sugar cane and sugar beet.  Found in fruits, honey, sorghum, sugar maple and in several other sources, it is the main ingredient of candy which is loved by children the world over. Yet, it has been  blamed for causing tooth decay and excess consumption of sugar has been associated with a host of ailments like diabetes, obesity, weight gain, depression, joint pain, fatigue and insulin resistance and even cancer.

Among fresh vegetables, onion, tomato and mushroom are reported to be highly export competitive. India ranks first in the world accounting for around 21 per cent of the world area, planted to onion. Globally, the country occupies the second position, after China, in onion production with a production share of around 14 per cent. Productivity of onion is low at around 11.4 metric ton/ha, which is significantly lower than the world average of 17.3 metric ton/ha. Besides India and China, the other major onion-producing countries are Turkey, Pakistan, Iran, Japan, Brazil, United States of America and Spain. It is produced for both domestic consumption as well as exports. India produces all varieties of onion - pink, red, yellow and white, big or small.

Potato is a major food crop, grown in more than 100 countries in the world and it is one of the major commercial crops grown in India. India ranks third by contributing around 7.5% to the world’s production. During 2006-07, 27 million tonnes was produced in an area of about 1.5 million ha. However, potato consumption per capita in India (14.8 kg/head/year) is one of the lowest in the world and hardly one per cent of the potato is processed.

Setting price is a critical component of successful marketing. Vegetable growers have a greater level of control than most other growers over marketable yields, input costs and price. The closer a grower is to the consumer, the more control over price the grower has. Buyers perceive price to represent value of the product. Underpricing, or pricing too low, gives the perception that the product is inferior, while setting the price too high often drives customers away. Many growers make the mistake of setting the price too low at the beginning of the marketing season when competition is less and demand is strong and then find it difficult to increase price later in the season. Before setting price, gauge the level of competition and the consumer demand for your product. For example, organic produce may have a stronger demand in urban areas, so prices can be set at a higher level. Also, early-season produce, such as tomatoes, has high demand with little competition in most markets, resulting in a higher price range.

Basmati Rice

Basmati Rice is a simple grain, yet throughout history it has been on royal menus of various cultures as the main dish. From the pilav of Turkey, polou of Persia, pilafs of the Steppes, the isotos and paellas of the Mediterranean, to the pulau of India it has been served to great sultans, maharajahs, shahs and emperors. Spices, nuts, dried fruits, vegetables and herbs are a natural for Basmati rice. Basmati rice transforms rice dishes into extraordinary meals. Also known as the “Queen of Rice”, this highly aromatic grain that is long and elegantly thin, has originated from Vasumati which means earth recognized by its fragrance. The full exposition of the word is from Hindi. Bas originating from Prakrit Vas which has a sanskrit root- Vasay connoting aroma; and mati from mayup meaning ingrained from the origin. Common usage has changed Vas to Bas while joining bas and mayup the latter changed to mati.. Thus the word Basmati originated.

Pulses are important food crops due to their high protein and essential amino acid content. Pulses are used as food and animal feed. India is the world’s largest producer, importer and consumer of pulses. Many exporting countries are dependent on India for marketing their pulses. Even though India is the world’s largest producer and consumer of pulses still there is a gap of 2-3 million tonnes between the production and consumption of pulses in the country and the gap is met through imports.

Random workplace surveys in the UK have proven that the staff can get pretty steamed up over hot drinks. Nine years ago, London Underground staff, in fact, threatened to go on strike when kettles were introduced to replace tea urns. Their grouse: it will make them late for shifts. When the credit crunch dried up the free watering holes in many companies, a survey by uSwitchforbusiness.com in 2010 claimed that trouble was brewing. It warned: "Cutting out the free cuppas may add to the bottom line, but there may be a far greater price to be paid in staff morale." Tea or coffee - free or not - is the preferred poison at work.

Prices of major spices such as chillies, jeera, turmeric and cardamom are being driven to the ground by higher production, poor export earnings and a lack of working capital with traders to hold the stocks. Last December, all these spices were at record highs. With the prices ruling high last year, the acreage of most of the spices has increased this year, indicating excess production. The chilli acreage has increased by 15% to 20% while the land under jeera crop is estimated to have gone up by over 26%. The turmeric production is heading for a historic high of 82 lakh bags (each bag of 70 kg) and cardamom is having a bumper harvest.

Cotton, the traditional and important commercial crop has been in cultivation in India for more than five thousand years. Though synthetic / man-made fibre has made inroads, cotton deserves the prime position not only in India but also in the world. The Northern hemisphere accounts for more than 90% of the total world production. Whereas countries like China, US and India together account for 50% of the production in the world. In India, cotton farming provides livelihood for over 4 million farm families. Various allied activities like ginning, spinning, weaving, textile processing, garment manufacturing, marketing etc., provide employment to several million people.

Fats and oils are one of the five essential ingredients of human diet. The four others are protein, carbohydrates, minerals, and vitamins. In balanced diet, the requirement of oils and fats per person per day is around 35 gm. In India, the major source of oils and fats is of vegetable origin; butter from animal milk also serves as a fat, though. In the nine major oilseeds, which are groundnut, rapseed /mustered seed, soya been, seasam seeds, sun flower seed niger seed, castor seed and linseed, out of these   seven are essentially edible. Among these seven, by far the most important are groundnut,  rapeseed/mustard seed, and soya bean. These three edible oilseeds account for a little over 80% of-the-total production of nine oilseeds, which include even two non-edible oilseeds, namely castor seed and linseed. As a matter of fact, edible oilseeds as such contribute nearly 95% to the total production of all cultivated oilseeds together.

The first use of rubber was by the Olmecs, who centuries later passed on the knowledge of natural latex from the Hevea tree in 1600 BC to the ancient Mayans. They boiled the harvested latex to make a ball for a Mesoamerican ballgame.

Liquid milk is the cheapest form of milk whereas value added products like yoghurt and paneer, already popular in India are ways to earn a higher income with some raw materials. Farms should focus on dairy herd improvement, herd management etc. Milk and dairy products are always very helpful to farmers for a constant source of income besides their regular farm products. They do not required to expend extra for their feeding if the number of cattle are less. With slight extra care they can earn enough to meet their daily expenses. Cows, buffalo, all the milk giving animals are easy to care.

All over the world, when people get richer their life style change and they consume more animal protein, especially meat. We may add value by good genetics and know how in farm and feed management. There would be huge demand for poultry products and meat in coming years in India as per capita income of middle class people is gradually increasing and for that production of meat and meat products is required to be increased to meet the demand. Meat of goat, buffalo chicken are generally sold in India. Marketing of meat and meat products, chicken and poultry products such as eggs are the main challenges for the new farmers as there is no ready market in India. Recently there is huge demand of Chicken in Northern India. The initial problem faced by farmers is getting the special chicken feed for the different age groups. There is no well equipped dedicated slaughter house available in every city. New technology for animal slaughter is required so that all parts of animal are used properly without losing valuable protein. The idea should be to use innovated technology to optimize the profits in the chain.

Food prices have risen 6% in the last six months. But it is expected to rise further as expensive energy, squeezed supplies and volatile weather take a combined toll. The biggest factor pushing prices is the cost of producing and marketing crops. Several factors will make farming more expensive in the coming months. The first variable is weather. Preliminary forecasts by a few foreign and private Indian meteorologists say India could have a below-normal monsoon because a weather phenomenon called El Nino is warming the Pacific Ocean. El Nino usually affects monsoon winds headed for India. Forecasters say monsoon might arrive on time but could falter during August-September, especially in the north.

Abstract

Radon being the radioactive daughter product of Uranium; the interrelationship between U and Rn has been established in the present study. It is found that Radon coexist with Uranium in the region. A total of 61 samples were collected spatially from hand pumps and bore wells of the study area. Major ions such as Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, F^-, Cl^-, HCO^3-, NO^3-, H₄SiO₄,PO₄- and SO₄^2- and U, Rn were analysed. The lithological influence of U and Radon occurrence is also highlighted. Hard rocks especially Granites are the source for both U and Rn in the study area whereas the lack of correlation exist between U and Rn in sedimentary terrain can be attributed to difference in flow conditions and chemical properties of these elements. 

Key words: Radon, Uranium, Granite, Ground water, Source.
 

Abstract

Quality of water is affected by natural and man induced contamination to groundwater system. Area chosen for study has gained its own importance due to the location of two lignite mines and a Thermal power plant in operation. Extensive large scale pumping of water is done for lignite mining. The mine drainage and drainage from thermal power plant along with agricultural return flow from lignite charged waters increases the severity of problem. In order to achieve a panacea for the above-mentioned situation, the study has incorporated and integrated in all related factors to get a meaningful interpretation for groundwater quality and quantity management in and around Neyveli area. The frequent failure of monsoon has added to the existing problem of over exploitation. To attain a panacea for water chemistry groundwater samples were collected for four different seasons. Higher EC and TDS values are observed in Southeast and Southwest part of the study area. In Southwest monsoon and Summer seasons HCO₃Cl dominates the anions, with few representations for SO₄. In Northeast monsoon and Post monsoon season Na + K – Ca + Mg is the dominant. Thermodynamic, studies reveal that groundwater of the region are stable with Kaolinite stability field in all the silicate systems. Bicarbonates derived from silicate mineral weathering are noted in the NW, Northern and in the mining region. These regions are located in the NW and NE part of the study area. Comparison of water quality to standards shows that the water can be used for drinking and for irrigation purposes except in few locations.

Abstract

In semiarid climates, a significant component of recharge to basin aquifers occurs along the mountain front. In this scenario Mountain Front Recharge study has been carried along the foothills of Courtallam ,Tamil Nadu. A total of 53 groundwater samples were collected along the foothills and measured for major cations and anions using standard procedure. Saturation index (SI) of carbonate minerals like Aragonite,Magnesite, Calcite and Dolomite,LogpCO₂ and Ionic strength obtained from WATEQ4F output. pH plays a significant role in the saturation index of the minerals. Most of the Carbonate minerals shows undersaturation  with the pH range 7.5. Positive relationship between SI and HCO₃ is noticed. A sharp increase of pCO₂ values towards the foothills region suggests that the groundwater has been recharged by, acquiring longer flow path during its infiltration into deeper level near foot hill region. The SI of these carbonate minerals was spatially distributed to identify the areas of higher SI and also it is compared with the water level fluctuation to understand the recharge process along the foothill region as well as riparian zone.

Abstract

The geochemical signature and vulnerability of groundwater of the East Coastal aquifers of  India from Pondicherry to Nagapattinam were determined. The coastal aquifers are fragile and this situation becomes more intense in aquifer systems like that of the Pondicherry to Nagapattinam region. A total of 136 water samples were collected during pre and post monsoon of 2008 and 2009 respectively. Out of which 45 samples for each pre and post monsoon from shallow groundwater and 23 samples for each pre and post monsoon from deeper groundwater.. The samples collected were analysed for major, minor cations and anions. Selected samples were also analysed for stable isotopes (d¹⁸O and dD). The analysed samples were studied for; their utility for different purpose, the nature of the geochemical classification, their variations in ion ratios, extent of sea water intrusion and the percentage of mixing, The study reveals that chief mechanism controlling shallow groundwater is the salts precipitated in the pore spaces during the Pre monsoon were leached and dissolved during the subsequent monsoon apart from sea water intrusion. Southern part of the study area  is more vulnerable than the Northern part of the study area.

Abstract

A total of 30 groundwater samples were collected in four different seasons (Pre Monsoon, South West Monsoon, North East Monsoon and Post Monsoon) from the coastal aquifers of Kalpakkam region of Tamilnadu. The samples were collected covering the seasonal and lithological variations to infer the influence of natural geochemical processes and anthropogenic sources on the groundwater chemistry. The collected samples were analysed for the parameters like EC, pH and Major ions. The saturation index of silicates and carbonates shows that state of saturation to over saturation, but the sulphate minerals is dominantly under saturated. In the inverse modeling three models are obtained using PHREEQC and the error percentage is noted as 7.45%.

Abstract

Deduction of overindulgence fluoride (F)  from the water has been endeavor by numerous investigators by using different materials both natural and artificial. The objective of this paper was to attempt the fluoride removal by using the locally available natural materials such as red soil, untreated charcoal, local powdered brick, fly-ash from Neyveli (thermal power plant) and mineral serpentine were used, adopting column method. Maximum defluoridation occurs immediately after the experiment has started. The morality of fluoride removed per gram is more in red soil when compared to the other materials. Variation of fluoride removal with time was studied after the erection of the column /unit, the defluoridation setup was then connected to the public water supply from the overhead tank of 50,000L capacity. Higher F removal was noted when flow rate was lesser. An attempt on the regeneration of the fluoride adsorbed soil was also made.

Abstract

Coastal aquifers are the sources of freshwater which are being over extracted due to increase in population, agriculture and industrial activities. This over exploitation has resulted in decline in groundwater level and intrusion of sea water into the coastal aquifers making it unfit for human utilities. An attempt has been made in the coastal tracts of Pondicherry region using Electrical resistivity imaging. The survey has been attempted in six locations spread thought the study area and the interpretation has been attempted by RES2DINV software. The profile length attempted was between 150 to 300 m with electrode spacings between 5 to 10 m. The apparent resistivity ranges between 0.1 to 1183 & ohm. Sea water intrusion was prominent along the northern parts of the study area and lower resistivity isolated in kirumambakkam has been interpreted as salinity due to the presence of clay minerals. In nallavadu saline intrusion has been identified at shallow depth.

Abstract

A study on the Subsurface groundwater discharge (SGD) in the coastal Cuddalore region of south east India has been carried out. Measurement of surface water Radon, Water level, Electrical Conductivity (EC) and pH for a total of twenty four hours, by hourly interval the measurement has been calculated and promote correlated with tidal values calculated by WX Tide 32 software. The SGD measurements were made by using a modified seepage meter. The study reveals a match with water level variation and tide with minor variation due to influx of surface water. Saline discharges, fresh groundwater discharges and surface water mixing processes were identified along the coast. Lower SGD (37.24 – 79.16 cm/day) were observed during fresh groundwater discharge.

Abstract

A study on colloids in groundwater and its relationship with the geochemical parameters is reasonably essential because of its facilitating nature to transport radionuclides in groundwater. Colloid sampling has been carried out in the coastal aquifers of southeast coast of India. Two different bore wells were selected based on the distance from the coast to collect groundwater samples. On the basis of the result achieved from this study, a reliable representation is emerging. The values of pH and EC are governed by the different size fraction of colloids. In this study, the relation between different size fractions of groundwater colloids and its pH, TDS and EC were carried out. These parameters were analyzed in the lab and its influence with four fractions of colloid like 1.2, 0.8, 0.45 and 0.22 µm have been discovered by smooth scatter plot. The accumulation of particles weighting by normal weighing instrument. There is an higher accumulation of particles found in Kalpakkam than Anupuram in all the size fractions. For separation of particles high frequency pressure was used by ultrasonic cleaner had been carried out. This method is very simple and more reasonable than any other methods.

Abstract

In Gadilam river basin, groundwater is found in both hard rock and sedimentary terrain and is the most important source of rural/urban drinking water supply. Gadilam river basin has gained its importance due to the presence of Neyveli Lignite open cast mine (NLC), group of industrial estate (SIPCOT), extensive depressurization of Cuddalore aquifer and boreholes of New Veeranam Scheme (NVS) in the downstream of the basin. A total of 178 water samples were collected in four different seasons at various lithologies. The collected samples were analyzed for various physico-chemical parameters using standard procedures. Geochemical indicators of groundwater were used to identify the chemical processes that control hydrogeochemsitry. Interpretation of hydrogeochemical data suggests that leaching of ions followed by weathering and anthropogenic impact controls the chemistry of the groundwater. Isotopic study reveals that recharge from meteoric source in sedimentary terrain and rock water interaction with significant evaporation prevails in hard rock region. This thorough understanding helps us to make judicial usage and to maintain the quality of this commodity.

Abstract

The development and management of fresh groundwater resources in coastal aquifers are seriously constrained by the impact of seawater intrusion. The coastal aquifers are fragile and this situation becomes more intense like that of the coastal Cuddalore region. The geochemical signature of groundwater of Cuddalore coast was studied for Pre Monsoon, Southwest, North east and Post Monsoon seasons by collecting total of 64 groundwater samples in each season. The collected samples from were analysed for physical parameters, such as electrical conductivity (EC), pH and major ion concentrations, such as Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, HCO₃, PO₄ and SO₄. Interpretation of analytical data shows the predominance of  Na–Cl type   in PRM and Ca- Mg-Cl type  is the dominant facies during POM. The Chaddas evaluation diagram shows that the hydrogeochemical evaluation plot for PRM samples fall in  Na-Cl type. The ratios of Na/Cl and Cl/HCO₃ is also enumerated the fact that the most of the samples from PRM and few samples from other seasons also indicates dominance of salt water intrusion.

Abstract

Aquifers are usually composed of permeable layers that can ways a considerable amount of groundwater. Usually, aquifer units are correlated through the concept of lithostratigraphy. For low-permeable aquifers, it is difficult to define the spatial distribution of hydrogeological units, and this study attempts to use geochemical methods to identify the groundwater flow paths in an area of Southeast coast of Tamil Nadu, India. Multiple geochemical analyses, including groundwater chemistry; stable isotopic compositions of d¹⁸O and 8D contents were performed.  Spatial distribution of d¹⁸O, dD, Cl-/HCO-₃ show that northeastern part of the study area seriously affected by seawater intrusion. The highly permeable aquifers at the east coastal region are characterized by high hydraulic conductivity as compared with other regions of the study area. Hydrogeochemical characteristics based on bivariate diagrams of major and minor ions show that changes in the chemical composition of groundwater are mainly controlled by the salinization process followed by cation-exchange reactions.

Abstract

Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) consisting of water soluble organic molecules and by products of organic decomposition and chemical degradation processes, constitutes a critical link in carbon and nutrient cycles. The quality, or chemical and physical character, of DOC affects the degree to which it is transformed by biological and chemical processes. The significance of DOC was studied in layered coastal aquifers of the Pondicherry region during four different seasons. Pondicherry region has varied geological set up ranging from Cretaceous to Recent formations. A total of 52 groundwater samples were collected from various aquifers like Alluvium, Tertiary(Upper Cuddalore, Lower Cuddalore) and Cretaceous for two different seasons of pre- monsoon(PRM), and post-monsoon (POM). The samples were analyzed for major ions and DOC. The range of DOC in the study area is 0-14 mg/l. Very high DOC concentrations were measured during PRM in the samples from Alluvium and Lower Cuddalore Formation. The samples of these formations were compared with pH, Ionic strength, log pCO₂ and carbonate minerals concentration. The alluvial aquifer shows that pH governed dissolution along the coastal tracts and in Upper Cuddalore formation it’s based on interaction between aquifer matrix and groundwater.

Abstract

Groundwater is most favored as a source of drinking water in all over world. It is often thought to be cleaner and easier to treat when compared with surface water and as a result, many wells have been sunk. Uranium and other radionuclides in water can lead to health problems if present in higher concentrations. In order to study the behavior and to understand the influence of lithology in groundwater of Madurai district, a study was conducted by collecting a total of 216 samples of different seasons (Premonsoon, South west monsoon, Northeast monsoon and Post monsoon) with respect to lithology and the number of samples was depending upon their spatial coverage in the study area. The groundwater samples were analysed for U, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, HCO₃^-, Cl^-, SO₄^2-, PO₄^3-, NO₃^-, F^-, H₄SiO₄, pH, EC, TDS. It was identified that the higher concentration of Uranium (156 ppb) were noted in the northern part of the study area. They are chiefly restricted to the Granitic terrain and nearby Charnockitic regions. The weathering process induces the release of higher U ions from the granitic terrain and the evaporated recharge water from the tank /reservoir  also induces the release of U ions from the rock matrix, it may also be due to fertilizer enriched agricultural return flows. The key source for all these processes and hydrogeochemical processes is identified to be lithology which inturn controls all the other processes in the study area.

Abstract

Amongst all types of major land-use change, extending irrigated agriculture using a surface-water source has the greatest influence on groundwater – both significantly increasing recharge and changing water quality as excess irrigation water infiltrates into shallow aquifers. Hence, in order to understand the impact of the landuse on the groundwater system the study has been aimed to understand the process by adopting geophysical, geochemical and microbial analysis of groundwater samples. The study has been conducted in Chidambaram taluk, with a total area of 92.51Sq.km. A total of 39 groundwater samples were collected for the analysis of major cation and anion along with the microbial analysis, like Total Coliform, Total Viable Counts, Fecal coliforms, Vibrio cholera and Total Streptococci. The geochemical studies reveal that there is no correlation between these parameters and the microbial population. The migration of the water from the elevated regions (urban region) is witnessed and the concentration of the microbial population is higher in these regions except in the southern region which has impermeable clay and this arrest the movement of water.

Abstract

Geochemical processes occurring within the groundwater and reactions with aquifer minerals have a profound effect on water quality. Hydrogeochemical composition of groundwater can also be indicative of its origin and history of passage through underground materials which water has been in contact. Assessing groundwater quality and developing strategies to protect aquifers from contamination are necessary aspects for proper planning and designing water resources. Anthropogenic activities like explosion of population, industrial growth, inputs of fertilizer, pesticides, and irrigation has been a crucial factor for determining the quality of groundwater. In this scenario, 43 groundwater samples were collected from the Dindigul district of Tamilnadu, a Hard rock terrain. The samples wereanalyzed for major cations and anions along with heavy metals to derive the different quality parameters and to obtain the pollution indices of different samples. This study focuses to find out the spatial relationship between the analyzed fluoride concentration in groundwater and pollution indices derived from the heavy metal concentration in the groundwater of the study area and their variation with respect to season.

Abstract

The Indian western Himalayas have wide variation in altitude, climate, soils, flora and fauna and socio-economic features. Livelihood options are limited due to small and fragmented holdings and inherent hill and mountain specificities. However, the physiographic and agro-climatic variability also offer opportunities of cultivating wide variety of profitable traditional and market oriented crops for exploiting niche advantage. Non-timber forest products play a vital role for livelihood security and demand that initiatives at local and governmental level are taken to develop and popularize technologies for collecting, processing and value adding to these products for commercial exploitation. Research and self help institutions are important in this context but strong regulatory policy framework is equally important. Further, need based and location specific trainings and demonstrations need to be organized to fill the knowledge void especially in traditional activities and emerging vocational enterprises. The national and international business concerns, engaged in exploiting natural resources such as hydro power and calcareous and limestone deposits should also engage more meaningfully in this task, under their corporate social responsibility (CSR) Livelihood generating scheme such as MNREGS should be extended to the non-conventional activities like weed eradication, management of wild (monkeys) and stray (cattle) animals that threaten livelihood security.

Abstract
The western Himalayan region is rich in a variety of natural resources owing to the existence of a range of biophysical and climatic interactions. Mountain inhabitants have been living in harmony with these natural resources for generations to meet their subsistence needs out of these resources.  However, recent decades have witnessed a substantial imbalance between man and nature that has adversely affected the livelihood of native people. Several anthropogenic and natural factors are responsible for this change. Furthermore, the exposure of mountain societies to outside world has opened up a number of new livelihood options based on both natural resources and other forms of human capital. The local people have adopted some livelihood practices suiting to the changed conditions at the expense of the age-old agri-silvi-pastoral mode of livelihood. There is an emerging challenge for policy makers and planners to make developmental interventions and tailor made livelihood options suiting to the changed scenario. Several government and non-government organizations and other agencies initiated a number of programmes that focus on natural resource management vis-à-vis livelihood improvement in the region. However, for want of cause and effect analysis many of these programmes are not yielding the desired results. This chapter provides an overview of the traditionally important livelihood practices of the western Himalayan region and some of the emerging livelihood supporting activities based on natural resources of the region. A case study of Bhimtal lake catchment where transformation of traditional livelihood has taken place at a rapid pace due to the influence of tourism and urbanization has also been included to highlight the emerging scenario. The paper suggests some useful policy options for planning livelihoods in the western Himalayan region of the country.

Abstract

The livelihood security of hill people is closely associated with hydrology of the region. The Himalayas possesses one of the largest reserve resources of freshwater in the form of snow and ice, thereby supporting livelihoods of millions of people. The physiographic constraints of the region restrict irrigation development with the result that, majority of cultivated area remains rainfed. Climate change is also a serious issue concerning hill economy. Its impact on livelihood security is dictated, among other things, through change in hydrology. In addition to highlighting hydrological issues, suggestions are offered on how to deal with water related issues to livelihood enlargement and protection.

Abstract

The paper presents findings of a field study to determine the agricultural and socio-economic impact of climate change on the mountain farmers’ apple economy. The study investigates the positive and negative effects of climate change on mountain farmers’ economy. It revealed how mountain farmers in a valley were forced to abandon apple farming which destroyed their farm economy and at the same time how same climate change brought new economic opportunities. The study findings also indicate that opportunities brought by climate change seem to have a time scale. This research attempts to piece together evidence and aims to enhance our understanding of climate change impacts as observed by farming communities at very local levels. The growing threat of global warming and its effects and prevailing obscurities about the future of agriculture are all addressed in this investigation.

Abstract

Hills and mountains are an important agro-ecosystem, which have lagged  behind the plains in respect of agricultural development. The plains of India witnessed green revolution followed by white, yellow and blue revolutions, which not only increased production and productivity of food crops but helped in bringing about overall development that led to livelihood security in the rural India. The hills, however, remained technologically backward resulting in low agricultural productivity, which brought about livelihood insecurity in these areas. And this has happened despite the fact that a large number of top class institutions of the CSIR, ICAR, ICFRE, Atomic Energy 
Commission, GSI and BSI along with State Agricultural Universities have been present (in the region) and were engaged in developing technology relevant to agriculture and allied areas. However, these technologies did not reach to the end user i.e. the hill farmer for a variety of reasons. Therefore, technology development and dissemination have been accorded high priority by the state governments.

Abstract

Livelihood of ~80% of rural inhabitants depends upon agriculture that relies upon the prevailing environmental conditions such as water availability and temperature. If unfavorable to the crops, these conditions would impact production and productivity leading to food-insecurity. Various abiotic stresses are generated due to the physiography that includes altitude, topography, edaphic factors, water availability and ecosystem degradation. In spite of the environmental limitations, crops have survived suggesting operation of relevant adaptive mechanisms in the native species. Indeed, novel genetic mechanisms were present and these could be utilized to improve the plant productivity under stress conditions. Also there are issues on the management of abiotic stresses, which need to be addressed. The chapter presents framework and policies on sustaining agriculture production under the situations of abiotic stress to ensure production sustainability by protecting livelihood of the inhabitants. Western Himalaya was deliberately chosen as the focus for discussion.