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Mango (Mangifera indica L.), the choicest fruit of India, is said to be the king of fruits. Mango belongs to the family Anacardiaceae and genus Mangifera. The fruits are lusciously juicy, with pleasant aroma and sweet taste. In nutritive valve and popularity, no other fruit can match it. It is an outstanding source of vitamin A, a good source of vitamin C, apart from normal minerals and other vitamins. In, India, it occupies the same position as apple does in temperate countries and grapes in certain other regions.

According to de Candolle, mango has been under cultivation in India for over 4000 years. References indicate that Alexander the Great noticed a beautiful mango plantation in the Indus Valley in 327 BC. Early foreign traveller like Huen-tsang (632-645), Ibn-Haukul, (902-968 AD) Ibn- batuta (1325-1349 AD) and Ludovici de Varthema (1503-1508) also praised the mangoes grown in India and mentioned it in their travel notes.

Mango is native to southern Asia, especially eastern India, Burma, and the Andaman Islands. Besides India, mango is cultivated as a commercial crop in many countries, such as, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, the Fiji Island, Tropical Australia, Egypt, Israel, Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, South Africa, the USA (Florida, Hawaii and Puerto Rico), Mexico, Brazil, Haiti and West Indies.

Varietie/Hybrids: Dashehari, Langra, Chausa, Fazli, Malda and Bombay Green are the popular varieties in Northern and Central India. Alphonso, Kesar, Pairi, Rajapuri, Jamadar, and Totapuri are widely grown in Western India. Bangenapalli, Suvarnarekha, Neelum, Totapuri, Malgoa and Alphonso are popularly grown in Southern India and Gulabkhas, Kishen Bhog, Himsagar, Zardal, Fazli and Langra are grown mainly in Eastern part of the country. Mallika, Amrapali, Manjeera, Ratna, Niranjan, Neeleshan, Neelishwari, Neelphonso, Arka Aruna, Arka puneet, Arka Anmol, Sidhu and CISH-M1 are some of the hybird varieties available.

Mango, like some of the other perennial crops viz. Citrus has varied reproductive mechanisms i.e. both sexual and asexual. Understanding of the physiology of flowering in mango has remained largely inconclusive and tangible explanation for the irregular pattern of flowering during the recent years is not forthcoming. Mango is a highly heterozygous crop and this high heterozygosity in the cultivars which are used in hybridization and the inherent difficulties in obtaining large hybrid population have made accurate genetic analysis in mango very difficult (Iyer and Schnell, 2009). Despite the drawbacks ailing mango breeding like high heterozygosity, occurrence of only a single seed per fruit, breeding can be successful because of a number of positive attributes of the species like the wide range of available genetic variation and the ease with which a selected hybrid can be vegetatively propagated (Iyer and Schnell, 2009). However, in spite of the large variability, sufficient headway has not been made in the improvement. Naik et al., (1958), opined that it is the large variability in India, too many cultivars and heavy regional preferences which have hindered the production of new commercial varieties on a large scale. The various botanical features of mango along with features of cytology and breeding are discussed below:

1. Anthracnose
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Glomerella cingulata)
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Disease produces symptoms like leaf spot, blossom blight, withertip, twig blight and fruit rot .
• Symptoms on leaves show as gray to brown spots with dark margins and a yellow halo. The spots later enlarge and coaleasce to form sizable necrotic areas.
• Tender shoots and foliage are easily affected which ultimately cause die back young branches.
• Blossom blight may vary in severity from slight to a heavy infection of the panicles .
• Black spots develop on panicles as well as on fruits. Severe infection destroys the entire inflorescence resulting in no setting of fruits.
• Young infected fruits develop black spots, shrivel and drop off.
• Fruits infected at mature stage carry the pathogen into storage and cause considerable loss during storage, transit and marketing (Figure -1).

Mango (Mangifera indica L), the king of fruits, is cultivated throughout a wide range of frost-free climates (Litz 1998). It is commercially the most important fruit crop of India, accounting for more than 54% of the total mango production worldwide. The fruit of mango (Mangifera indica L.) is exceptional for its juicy, succulent, thick fruit pulp and nutrient abundance in terms of wide range of amino acids, sugars, organic acids, minerals including Ca, P, Fe, and K and vitamins. Out of several diseases which attack mango crop, mango malformation disease is a serious threat to its cultivation since it causes gross deformation of the vegetative and floral tissues (Ploetz et al., 2002; Kumar et al., 2011). Floral malformation is a major problem in mango, rendering mango cultivation unproductive in northern India and other regions of the world (Pandey et al., 1977; Ram, 1991).

1. Introduction

Fermented milk products such as yoghurt are produced through out world (Kurmann et al., 1992). Yoghurt can be characterized as a gel like coagulated milk product, having a smooth consistency and a pleasing flavour and is now widely consumed both by infant and adult populations. It is common that yogurt preparation involves the use of equal amounts of two lactic acid bacteria (LAB): Streptococcus thermophillus (St) and Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus (Lb); samples prepared with these starter bacteria are labeled Lb-St (Ng et al., 2011). In the early stage of the incubation process, Lb stimulates the growth of St releasing amino acids from casein (where the most important is valine) and producing a moderate reduction in pH due essentially to St. Yoghurt has better digestibility than milk and this is related to its comparatively high content of free amino acids. Besides nutritional value, it possesses hypocholesterolaemic (Mann, 1977) and antitumour effects (Odd et al., 1983; Reddy et al., 1983).Yoghurt may be set or stirred and has a potential for being used as dietary supplement for infants. So they cross the line between dietary supplements, health foods and conventional foods with great facility. Now a days, emphasis is given on sweeteners and more natural sweeteners will be used (Hollingsworth, 2001). Natural sweeteners can be easily incorporated in yoghurt by blending cattle milk with fruit pulps like mango. The enhancement of other nutrients e. g. vitamins and minerals will be added advantage. Mango pulp which contains a high proportion of sugar, mostly monosaccharide, is easily adsorbed by the digestive systems (Celik and Bakirci, 2003).

Soybean is a comparatively inexpensive source of high quality protein. The protein and fat contents in soybean are above 40 % and 20 %, respectively. Nutritionally, soy protein is a more balanced plant protein for human consumption. Studies have indicated that consumption of soy protein decreases total serum cholesterol and minimizes risks for several cancers (Anderson et al., 1995; Messina, 1997; Zind, 1998). The positive health benefits associated with soybeans have greatly increased its consumer awareness which has created a large market for soy foods (Ohr, 2000; Liu, 2000). The problem of beany flavour in soy products can be overcome by lactic acid fermentation (Buono et al., 1990; Granata and Morr, 1996). Soy solids are not only abandoned source of protein but also have therapeutic properties against breast, prostate, colon and lung cancers due to its isoflavones like genistein and daidzein content. Fortification with soy made yoghurt beneficial in lowering cholesterol level and blood pressure and in relieving symptoms of menopause and osteoporosis.

Important Commercial Mango Varieties

Northern Region: Langra, Dashehari, Chausa, Bombay Green, Amrapali, Sukul, Sipia

Eastern Region: Himsagar, Langra, (syn. Malda), Krishna-Bhog, Zardalu, Gulabkhas, Fazli.

Southern Region: Banganapalli, Bangalora, Mulgoa, Neelum, Swarnarekha,

Western Region: Alphonso, Kesar, Pairi.

Mango is the national fruit of India which has been cultivated in India from time immemorial. It is indigenous to India and dates back to around 4000 BC. The wild mango is said to have been originated in the foothills of Himalayas in India and Burma. The mango was cultivated as early as 2000 BC. Gradually, the wild mango developed into an exotic, richly flavoured succulent fruit that is enjoyed even today. In the early stages of domestication, fruits were probably very small and fibrous without much flesh. The Mughals and Portuguese selected and grew mango plants for generations. Centuries of development have produced varieties of mangoes free from both fibre and unpleasant flavour. This eventually led to larger fruits with thick flesh that we are familiar with today. The Chinese traveler Huien T’sang, who visited Hindustan between 632 and 645 A.D., was the first person, so far as known, to bring the mango to the notice of the outside world.

Mango Fruit fly : Bactrocera dorsalis : Tephritidae

This is probably the most economically important pest of mango. It can attack many crops like mango, guava, peach, apricot, cherry, pear, ber, citrus, banana, papaya, avocado, passion fruit, coffee, melons, jack fruit and strawberry. There are also related species that may cross infect. The adults are light brown small flies with a single pair of membranous transparent wings. The other pair is modified into halteres. Eggs are thrust into the skin of the mangoes when they are semi ripe. A drop of resin comes out of the ovipunctures and can be seen as a black mark. While purchasing mango, this can be used as an indication of the presence of the fruit fly eggs.

Genus : Mangifera 
Species : indica L.
Family : Anacardiaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 40

In the early Sanskrit literature  Amra, mango was known to Indian at very early times. Mango occupies an important place in the Hindu mythology as well as in various religious observances. Various archaeological discoveries also mention the presence of Mango in India. Alexander the Great in 327 BC during his invasion found mango cultivation in the Indus Valley. The Buddhist and Chinese pilgrims in their travel notes have also indicated mango cultivation. Amir Khusru a famous Turkoman poet has quoted ‘Mango as the pride of garden, the choicest fruit of Hindustan’. During the Mogul Emperors, mango occupied an important place in fruit culture. The Ain-e-Akbari an encyclopaedia work written during the rule of Akbar, gives detail account of mango, varietal characteristics, quality etc. In praise of mango, British authors lavished huge praise and designated it as King of Fruits and that the Goa mango is perhaps the largest and most delicious, wholesome and best tasted of any fruit

Origin and history: Mango is the king of fruits which is grown in India for over 400 years. More than 1000 varieties exist today. It grown in almost all state, India’s share is about 56% of total mango production in the world. Its production has been increasing since independent contributing 39.5% of total fruit production in India. Andhra Pradesh top in the production and Uttar Pradesh is top in area. Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, West Bengal and Gujarat together contribute for about 82% of total production. 

Climate and Soil: Mango thrives well in tropical and subtropical climate. High humidity, rainfall and frost during the flowering period is harmful. The favourable temperature for its cultivation is about 24-27^ºC however, it can tolerant to the temperature up to 48^ºC.

Mangoes (Mangifera indica L.) belong to the family Anacardiaceae, has become naturalized and adapted throughout the tropics and subtropics. There are over 1,000 varieties throughout the world, which is a testament to their value to mankind. Popularly known as ‘King of Fruits’, mango is eaten throughout the world. Commercial mango cultivation is based on locally adapted and recommended cultivars. There is a great diversity in mango fruit which permits considerable manipulation of various purposes and markets such as juice, candy, chutney, amchur, pickles, jam, jelly, fresh fruit, canned and/or dried fruit etc. Given the multiple products, it is therefore a potential source of foreign exchange for a developing country as well as a potential source of employment for a considerable seasonal labour force.

PRESENT STATUS

India is the leading country sharing 42.1 % of the world mango production. Currently, it is cultivated in 22,97,000 ha with a total production of 1,51,88,000 tonnes. In India, all fruits share 29.25 % of total land and 31.13 % of total fruit production of which, 36 % of land and 20.3 % of production is under mango. Mango prefers a warm, frost-free climate with a well defined winter dry season. Rain and high humidity during flowering and fruit development reduces fruit yield. The tree generally flowers in mid- to late winter, while fruits mature during early to mid-summer. Mango trees are usually between 3-10 m (10–33 ft) tall but can reach up to 30 m (100 ft) in some forests. The canopy is evergreen with a generally spreading habit. The heavy canopy of the mango is a source of shelter and shade for both animals and human beings. It occupies a pre-eminent place among sub-tropical fruits grown in some states.

Mango is most important of all fruit crops in terms of are coverage and production, besides its socioeconomics providing livelihood to million of people in India and it is acknowledged as the king of fruit of this country. The greatest tribute of this esteemed plant was paid by Emperor Akabar (1556–1605) who established the Lal Bag (a mango orchards having one lakh plants) in Darbhanga (Bihar) when large orchards of fruit trees were unknown. In Ain-I-Akbari, a master piece of Persian literature, written by the great chronicler Abul Fazal (1590 AD) during the region of Akbar. Popularity of mango among the consumers is increasing due to its delicious flavour and much higher nutritional and therapeutic values. Thus, mango is now appreciated and spreading across the globe. It is grown in more than 90 countries. Washing of mouth and hand are necessary after eating the fruit so, it is also known as bathroom fruit.

Area and Production

India is the single largest producer of fruit, accounting for 49.6 per cent of area and 49.1 per cent of the total world production. Mango occupies 23.13 million hectares area in India. Amongst the major mango-exporting countries India, Mexico, Brazil and Pakistan accounted for 3.5, 1.4 and 3.3 per cent of total area under mangoes in the world respectively. The productivity of mango is highest with 13.6 tonnes/ha in Brazil and 7.0 tonnes/ha in India which is much lower. India contributed about 45.7 per cent of total mango production (35.71 million tonnes) in the world, making it the most important mango producing country. Andhra Pradesh ranks first as it produces about 27 per cent of total mango production and Uttar Pradesh is ranked second in production (23.9%) with productivity of13 tonnes/ha. At present the varieties like ‘Alphonso’ grown in Maharashtra and Gujarat and ‘Dashehari’ in U.P. are exported to countries viz. Afghanistan, Bahrain, France, Kuwait, Malaysia, Nepal, Qatar, Singapore and U.K. Mango nectar and pulp has great scope to European and American market.

It is a very common disease of mango. It is otherwise known as blossom blight, leaf spot, twig blight or wither tip.

Annual rainfall requirement- 75-190 cm

Common names of Malda - Fazli in Calcutta Bombay green in UP Sehroli in Delhi

• The ‘Portuguese Jesuits in Goa started Inarching about 300 years ago. (90% success)
• The seedlings can be inarched when they are three months old as is done in the “Philippines”.
• The Indian nurserymen usually practice inarching in one-year-old seedlings.
• Grafts onto older seedlings result in poor root system.
• There should be no rain; otherwise, water gets inside the union and causes rotting of tissues.
• The name Mangifera was given for the first time by “Bontus” in 1658 when he referred to this as arbor Mangifera (the tree producing mango). Linnaeus also referred it as Mangifera arbor in 1747 before changing the name to its present form “Mangifera indica” in 1753.

Mango was firstly grown within glasshouse in 1960 at England.

Mango, Mangifera indica is indigenous to India and ranks at number one as for as production and export are concerned. The productivity of mango in India is low (6.6MT/ha) and one of the reasons for the same is pests associated with the crop at varying stages of the tree growth. Around 175 insect pests have been reported to infest mango but only few are the major pests the details of which re provided hereunder:

Mango hopper, Idioscopus clypealis (Lethiery); I. niveosparsus (Lethiery); Amritodus atkinsoni (Lethiery) (Cicadellidae: Hemiptera) Hoppers constitute one of the most destructive pests of mango throughout the country. The eggs are dull white and concealed inside tissue. The colour of the nymphs vary from dust yellow to pale yellow and these nymphs walk in a crab like manner. The adults are small wedge shaped grayish insects measuring3.4-5.1mm in length. Amritodus atkinsoni is comparatively bigger and light brown in colour with two spots on scutellum, while Idioscopus clypealis is smallest and lighter in colour with dark spots

Garcinia mangostana Linn. (GML) belongs to the family of Guttiferae and is named “the queen of fruits”. It is cultivated in the tropical rainforest of some Southeast Asian nations like Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Philippines, and Thailand. The mangosteen fruit is round in shape, dark-purple, 2 to 3 inches in diameter and contains 4 to 8 segments of snow-white, delicious soft flesh. The fruit may or may not contain seeds. Encasing the flesh is a purple skin 6 to 10 cm thick. Because of its taste and medicinal properties, the mangosteen is often called “The Queen of Fruits”. For centuries, the mangosteen has been honored and cherished by the peoples of Southeast Asia. It is a delicately flavoured fruit of temperate zone.

Mangosteen is native to Malaya Peninsula, and mainly cultivated in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, India, Vietnam, Philippines, China, California (USA), Hondurus, Panama, Hawaii, Trinidad and Cuba. In India it is cultivated in lower slopes of Nilgiris, Kerala and West Bengal.

Uses

Mangosteen is mainly used as a fresh fruit. Aril of the seed is edible after being boiled in water. The cortex of the fruit contain tannin, and is used as a commercial dye. The rind of fruit is astringent, which is used in chronic dysentery and diarrhea. The bark and young leaves are used to gargle for sore throat. It contains a crystalizable substance known is mangosteen.

Mangosteen named after the French priest and explorer Laurentiers Garcin is thought to have originated in Southeast Asia. It was said to be Queen Victoria’s favourite fruit. The correlation of Queen Victoria with the mangosteen is probably related to the fact that numerous people have referred to it as the “Queen of Fruits”. It is one of the most praised tropical fruits and certainly the most esteemed fruit. Most people enjoy mangosteen and the fruit now categorized as a “super fruit” has a ready market in western countries where it is considered a tropical delicacy. Mangosteen is primarily consumed as a fresh fruit.

Genus : Garcinia
Species : mangostana L.
Family : Guttiferae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 56-76, 88-96, 120-130

In family Guttiferae to which mangosteen belongs, very few plants are fruits and yield drugs, gums and resins. It is a tropical fruit and occupies an important place in Garcinia family. The European voyagers on their return indicated wonderful stories of the East and mention of mangosteen received huge praise. Hacobus Bontius termed the fruit as ‘Queen of fruits’ the finest fruit in the world. Because of beautiful colouring of fruit alongwith pleasant delicate flavour makes mangosteen the most esteemed fruit of Asiatic tropics and no other tropical fruit equals to that of mangosteen. Despite being designated as the finest fruit of the tropics, the fruit is mainly confined to the limits of East Indies. The species is found wild in the forests of Sunda Islands and of the Malay peninsula. Writers have indicated that mangosteen is usual dooryard tree in the East Indies, more in Java and Sumatra. Some small orchards of mangosteen have come up in Sri Lanka, but they are most abundant only in Malay Archipelago.

Abstract

Microorganisms are potential tool for the production of large amount of potent and effective health care, food products and biofertilising agents. Recently, the marine microorganisms are considered as good sources of such products which may possess novel properties. There is a high scope for the exploration of marine microbes in order to search new product of economic importance from marine resources. Mangrove habitat is also part of marine habitat with the plant community having unique adaptation in their morpho- physiological and reproductive behavior. The high level of organic content in mangrove rhizosphre also leads to the colonization of degradative microorganisms and make them responsible for the creation of diverse and potential microbial community. Hence, mangroves are also considered as untapped resources of microbial metabolites and products. Several microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, algae, cyanobacteria, lichens are documented from mangrove habitats. These inhabitant microbes are the good source of secondary metabolites, therapeutic enzymes, food protective agents and mineral solubilisers. However, information on these aspects is very meager and thus the present review is an attempt to compile informations on the sources, properties and application of important microbes from mangrove ecosystems.

Origin and diversification of Mangroves

Mangroves are quite old, possibly arising just after the first angiosperms (Duke 1992). Based on the fossil evidence and recent molecular studies, it is believed that mangroves originated along the shorelines of ancient Tethys Sea and there was a dispersal along the Tethys seaway westward into the Atlantic and further into the east Pacific (long before the closure of the Panama Isthmus) and eastward into South east Asia and Australia during the Late Cretaceous or early Eocene around 80 million years ago (Duke 2006). Nypa seems to be earliest fossil evidence. However, prior to closure of Tethys sea, around 40-55 million years ago, the mangrove genera - Nypa, Acrostichum, Rhizophora, Avicennia, Pelliciera, Sonneratia, Bruguiera, Ceriops, Heritiera, and Aegiceras - were present around shoreline (Duke 2017). The closure of Tethys Seaway by the mid-Tertiary (34-50 Million years ago) by northward movement of African landmass, created a physical barrier that completely terminated the Atlantic East Pacific (AEP) and Indo-West Pacific (IWP) exchange route, and resulted in subsequent diversifications within the AEP and IWP regions influenced by region-specific events (Ellison et al. 1999; Duke 2006). The plate tectonics and other vicariant events like Pleistocene sea level rise are attributed to the current distribution pattern and disjunct distributions of species within genera. Duke (2017) hypothesised two separate westward dispersal routes in AEP: (i) a southern path along the coasts of West Africa, South America and, (ii) a northern path along the North American east coast, whereas he hypothesised two isolated pathways in IWP towards eastward dispersal: (i) a northern path along the coast to the Middle East, Southeast Asia and, (ii) a southern path along the coasts of East Africa, India, and Australia. Further he noted that collision of India and Australia with Middle East and Southeast Asia respectively, resulted complication in dispersal route. Based on the available records it is presumed that diversification of mangrove plants has largely been driven by three key processes of speciation viz., Allopatric speciation, Peripatric speciation and Parapatric speciation (Duke 2017).

Mangroves Definition

A mangrove is tree, shrub, palm or ground fern, generally exceeding one and a half meter in height that normally grows above mean sea level in the intertidal zone of marine coastal environment and estuarine regions of the tropical and subtropical coastlines (Duke 1992). The mangrove is also defined as assemblages of salt tolerant trees and shrubs. Mangroves are taxonomically heterogenous and more related to environment than terrestrial or aquatic plants.

The term ‘mangroves’ is used to define both a group of plants and a community. To avoid confusion, Macnae (1968) proposed the term ‘mangal’ for the mangrove forest community, and the term ‘mangroves’ for the plants. Other terms for the mangrove forest community are coastal woodland, oceanic rainforest, intertidal forest, tidal forest, blue carbon forest, mangrove forest, and mangrove swamp.

Generally, mangrove species are grouped into two types: Exclusive and Non-Exclusive. The exclusive species are limited to the mangrove habitat, and they are also referred to as strict mangroves, obligate mangroves or true mangroves. The non-exclusive species are mainly distributed in a terrestrial or aquatic habitat, but they also occur in the mangrove habitats and they are referred to as semi-mangroves, back mangroves or mangrove associates. Tansley and Fristch (1905) are the first to introduce the criteria to classify mangrove species into true mangroves and mangrove associates. Tomlinson (1986) used rigid criteria to distinguish true mangroves from mangrove associates. In his criteria, true mangroves possess all or most of the following features:

Distribution of Mangroves in India

Mangrove forests in India are found along the coastline of 9 States and 4 Union Territories (Fig. 5). The mangrove habitats are broadly classified into three namely, Deltaic (Eastern Coast Mangroves), Estuarine & Backwater (Western Coast Mangroves) and Insular mangroves (A & N Islands) (Mandal and Naskar 2008). India has a total mangrove cover of 4975 km²; of which, 57% is present along the east coast (Bay of Bengal); 31% along the west coast (Arabian Sea) and the remaining 12% in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (FSI 2019).

Basic Requirements

Hybrid seeds could be produced at cheap rates only if the crop species have certain built-in morphological or physiological mechanisms, suitable for the control of parentage for successful hybrid seed production and its floral morphology, is amenable to it. Some of the basic requirements and techniques employed in large-scale commercial hybrid seed production of crop plants are as follows:

• Availability of a proven heterotic hybrid combinations which could distinctly and profitably surpass the yield levels of commercial variety being grown.
• Availability of an easy, economic and effective means of eliminating or rendering functionless of male part of bisexual seed parent, mechanically, genetically or even biochemically.
• Availability of a strong fertility restoration system (in case of the use of cytoplasmically governed male sterility system) or availability of a tightly linked marker gene system in genetically governed male sterility along with full and detectable expression of self-incompatibility.
• Absence of modifier genes or gene systems in case of the use of self-incompatibility for hybrid seed production.
• Complete synchronization of flowering in both seed and pollen parents.
• Free, unrestricted and natural transfer of pollen from pollen to seed parents.
• Good seed setting on seed parent.
• A skilled organized effort for large-scale seed production, certification, processing and well-knitted distribution of hybrid seeds.

Manila tamarind (Pithecellobium dulce  (Roxb.) Benth.), also known as ‘Jangle jalebi’, ‘Madras thorn’, Sweet inga and ‘Monkey pod’ has a potential to become an important tree of semi- arid and arid regions since it is a drought hardy plant and tolerates harsh environmental conditions as well as salinity. In general, it is planted on the boundary of orchard, road and field sides as protective hedge plant. It is a medium size, much branched tree, suitable for silvi-pastoral system (Gupta et al., 1994). It is drought resistant species but susceptible to frost under arid conditions, coming up well in areas of low rainfall due to its extensive root system. Names like dulce (sweet) and “Manila tamarind” reflect the wide use of the pods as food. The most valuable and commonly used part of Manila tamarind tree is the pulp, which is white or red, very sweet and has a pleasant flavour. The large aril represents 50 per cent of the fruit (Seeds 25%, husk 25%). The major constraint in commercialization of this tree species is lack of improved genotypes, agro-techniques for cultivation in different ago-climatic conditions and limited commercial value.

Abstract

Among the different hand thinning treatments, thinning of lateral flower buds resulted in maximum yield of ‘A’ grade fruits (42.30 kg/vine) without affecting the total yield (86.34 kg/vine). The fruit size and weight was significantly increased with increase in the intensity of thinning. The maximum fruit size (length and breadth) and weight were recorded when only two flower buds or flowers, or fruitlets/fruiting shoot were retained, but the total yield was significantly reduced as compared to other treatments. In the second experiment, hand thinning treatment was integrated with the plant growth regulators i.e. CPPU and cytokinin. The results revealed that 5 ppm CPPU in combination with hand thinning (thinning of lateral flower buds to 2 flower buds/fruiting shoot) significantly increased fruit size, yield and percentage of ‘A’ grade fruits. This treatment produced 75 per cent ‘A’ grade fruits as compared to only 19 per cent under control.

In the coffee family Rubiaceae, Rubia cordifolia L. (RC) is a useful medicinal plant in the Ayurvedic system due to its many pharmacological characteristics. It is also known as common Madder or Indian Madder. It was grown for a red pigment generated from the roots. Rubia was divided into roughly 70 species that were found all over the world, including 36 species and two variants described from China. Because of their high bioactivities, Rubia plant extracts and phytochemicals have gotten a lot of interest.

Morphological characteristics

It is a perennial, prickly climber with a stem, growing up to 12 m long. Leaves are highly variable, ovate lanceolate, 5-7 nerved, 2-10 cm long and 2-5 cm broad, occurring in whorls of 4-6. The stems are slender and quadrangular. The leaves are simple, opposite and stipulate, the stipule is interpetiolar. The petiole is 1.5–3 cm long. The blade is lanceolate, 1.5–5 cm × 0.5–2.5 cm, cordate at base, obtuse acuminate at apex and displays three to five longitudinal nerves. Roots are perennial, long, cylindrical, and rusty brown in colour

Present study was undertaken to unravel the influence of experimentally induced pre- existing diabetes on survival time and/or mortality pattern in septic animals and how diabetes and sepsis, when occur concurrently, alter vascular reactivity of aorta. Type-1 diabetes was induced following intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin (STZ: @ 65 mg/kg) for 5 consecutive days while sepsis was induced by caecal ligation and puncture (CLP). Streptozotocin produced a sustained hyperglycaemia in mice and there was decrease in body weight with progression of hyperglycaemic state. CLP caused hyperglycaemia followed by euglycaemia and hypoglycaemia, while in diabeto-sepsis hypoglycaemia was set earlier, leading to early mortality. Alteration in vascular reactivity and endothelial dysfunction was observed.

Importance and Value of Human Resources

The employees are the human resources of an organization which are crucial for its functioning. The acquisition of human resources and their maintenance involves costs. Manpower costs include costs of research and designing of manpower programmes that is man-power planning, work study and designing of personnel policies etc. The costs of commissioning of man power, that is, costs of recruitment, induction, placement and training etc. The cost of maintenance of these resources is a very significant component of the total costs of an organization. Maintenance costs include wages and salaries, welfare and medical benefits, PF, gratuity and other retiring benefits etc. These costs form a substantial part of the total costs of an organization. In the last 30 years the treatment of manpower costs has been recognized as a separate division in accounting practices. The other assets like machinery, buildings etc come under depreciation. In contrast, human assets are the employees at all levels, as they grow in age and experience, add to their productivity and capacity to earn for the organization and become more valuable.

INTRODUCTION
A Primary Processing Centre (PPC) is a facility that offers essential infrastructure for the initial processing of agricultural produce, including grading, sorting, packaging, and storage. These centers are strategically located near production zones within raw material catchment areas and are supported by Collection Centers (CCs) in nearby villages.
The establishment and efficient management of a Primary Processing Centre (PPC) play a crucial role in enhancing the value of raw agricultural products, improving their marketability, and minimizing post-harvest losses. A welloperated PPC integrates modern processing technologies, optimized resource utilization, and streamlined logistics to ensure high-quality output and long-term sustainability. Advanced processing methods such as drying, milling, juicing, and canning help maintain product quality and nutritional integrity while reducing waste. Additionally, a robust management framework is essential for supervising operations, implementing quality control measures, and maintaining an efficient supply chain that connects local farmers to the processing facility. The effectiveness of a PPC extends beyond technical efficiency, as it also fosters community empowerment through job creation, skill enhancement, and active participation, thereby contributing to both economic development and sustainable agricultural practices. By harmonizing these elements, a PPC serves as a critical hub for agricultural progress, granting farmers improved market access, decreasing reliance on unprocessed exports, and generating value-added products that align with consumer demand.
The manufacturing and management of a Primary Processing Centre (PPC) play a crucial role in transforming raw agricultural produce into value-added products that enhance marketability, reduce post-harvest losses, and improve farmers’ income. A well-established PPC serves as a key

INTRODUCTION Snacks manufacturing involves transforming various ingredients into chips or other types of snacks. These snacks are often enhanced with added flavors, boosting their taste and appealing to buyers seeking a quick and satisfying bite. Ready-to-eat snacks come in a wide array of flavors and varieties, with snack manufacturers in India constantly introducing new options.
As per the India Snacks Market Forecast, based on surveys of snack companies and consumer preferences, the Indian snack market is projected to surpass Rs 1 billion by 2024, creating more opportunities for newcomers in the industry. The food sector has become a highly profitable industry, fostering the growth of innovative food processing units. Snack manufacturing companies like Kiwi Foods are leading the way by offering new, exciting products that are quickly gaining popularity.
Food is essential for energy, but sometimes, heavy meals aren’t the best option, and snacks serve as a perfect alternative. Whether it’s during tea time or a quick bite during a hectic workday, snacks are a versatile food choice for any occasion. The market offers a diverse range of options, from classic salted chips to unique varieties like pop pasta and masala corn. Snack manufacturers in India cater to the evolving tastes and preferences of consumers, providing a wide range of delicious snack choices.
PROCESSING SNACK FOODS
Snack foods can also be grouped according to the food processing method used to produce them, even though people typically divide them into two categories: sweet and salty. Simple extrusion is used to create the first-generation snacks; no additional processing is required. This category includes snacks like popcorn, dried fruit, potato chips, and nuts

Introduction
At the moment, liposomes, which are tiny bubble-like structures made of phospholipid bilayers, are an important part of all drug transport methods. Their unique ability to hold medicinal chemicals that both like and don’t like water is what makes them stand out. These molecules’ ability to change forms is very important for making different medicines more bioavailable, stable, and effective (Shah et al., 2020; Wagner and Vorauer-Uhl, 2011). Since Alec D. Bangham first found liposomes in the 1960s, they have gone from being simple experimental models to highly advanced carriers that are now used in both clinical and business settings. Liposome production has changed over time from simple lab methods to complex systems used on a commercial scale. At the moment, these methods can make liposomal formulations that are of high quality and consistently good traits (Alavi et al., 2022; Wagner et al., 2006). It is very important to know how to control the physicochemical qualities of liposomes during the manufacturing process. This includes things like size, charge, lamellarity, and how well they encapsulate (Mozafari et al., 2005; Watwe and Bellare, 1995). It is important to know the qualities of liposomes in order to figure out how they act in biological systems, like how fast drugs are released, how long they stay in circulation, and how they spread throughout the body. What method is used to make liposomal pharmaceutical compositions has a big effect on how safe and useful they are. Over the years, many methods have been developed to make liposomes with specific properties that are useful for their purpose (Sorgi and Huang, 1996; Patil and Jadhav, 2014). One of the first and easiest ways to make liposomes was through thin-film hydration. It was mostly used in places where study was being done. “Thin-film hydration” is the process of an organic liquid evaporating after lipids dissolve in it, which makes a thin film (Redziniak et al., 2017). After that, a watery phase is added to the film, which causes multilamellar vesicles (MLVs) to form. This method is easy to use and works well for smallscale applications, but it often creates liposome populations that aren’t all the same size or level of encapsulation. In order to get around these problems, methods like sonication and extrusion are used to make liposomes that are smaller and more uniform (Vemuri et al., 1990).
There is a method called “sonication” that can be used to efficiently change larger liposomes into smaller unilamellar vesicles (SUVs). The size of liposomes can be reduced very well with this method, which is known for being one of the first to do so. With this method, liposomes with diameters generally smaller than 100 nm can be made very efficiently. Because of this, these liposomes work well for many cellular purposes. Despite this, sonication could create heat and mechanical forces that could damage the structure of the liposome membrane or make it less stable for molecules that are particularly fragile. Improving the sonication settings is necessary to find the best balance between making the liposomes smaller while still protecting the inside parts (Liu and Meng, 2021).
An effective way to make liposomes with a precise and uniform size distribution is through extrusion. A pressure-based method can let liposomes pass through

Soil fertility and crop production can be maintained only by efficient and judicious management of nutrients addition to the soil from external sources. Of the two sources most widely used all over the world, one is organic in nature- the organic manures, simply called manures, and the other comprises the synthetic or naturally occurring chemical fertilizers, simply called fertilizers. A brief account of manures is described hereunder:

The word manure came from Middle English manuren meaning to cultivate land, and initially, from French word manoeuvre meaning hand work alluding to the work which involved manuring land. The term manure originally meant that which was worked by hand (Fr. manoeuvre), but gradually, came to apply to any process by which the soil peroperties could be improved. Prominent among such processes was that of directly applying manure to the land, manure in this sense being what is now called farmyard manure or dung, the excreta of farm animals mixed with straw or other litter. Ronald Fisher seems to have used the word manure systematically for what we would call fertilizer today.

Uses of Manure

Manure has been used for centuries as a fertilizer for farming since it is rich in nitrogen and other nutrients, which facilitate growth of the plants. Liquid manure from pig or hog operations is usually knifed (injected) directly into the soil to reduce the unpleasant odours. Manure prepared from hogs and cattle is spread on fields using a manure spreader. Due to the relatively lower level of proteins in grasses, which herbivores eat, cattle manure has a milder smell than the dung of carnivores, e.g., elephant dung is practically odourless. However, due to the quantity of manure applied to fields, odour can be a problem in some agricultural regions. Poultry droppings are harmful to plants when fresh but after a period of composting are valuable fertilizers.

The dried manure of animals has been used as fuel throughout history. Dried manure (usually known as dung) of cow was and still is an important fuel source in countries such as India, while camel dung may be used in treeless regions such as deserts.

Introduction Livestock plays a vital role in rural economy. Apart from milk, which is a significant economic contributor, efficient use of livestock resources and byproducts like Manure/dung in biogas systems can help generate localised clean cooking energy for rural masses. At the same time, biogas spent slurry; a by-product of biogas plant is a potential source of major and micronutrients besides organic matter. Its proper utilisation after processing has a vast potential in meeting the nutrient requirement of the crops and thereby reducing use of chemical fertilizers besides providing sustenance to soil health. It is estimated that about 443.5 lakh tonnes of solid bio-slurry could be made available from dairy animals. This bio slurry can be processed to produce bio fertilizers which can meet the India’s requirement of NPK and micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu) by about 4.5% and 0.4% respectively. Vermicomposting is the best technique to convert livestock waste into a resource. In India livestock manure is managed basically in three ways:

A. Majority cases dung/manure excreted by livestock are removed and dumped into heaps nearby cattle sheds. The heaps remained for some time when they get converted into manures, which are spread subsequently in the fields as an organic matter.

B. Manure/dung is utilized for energy purpose in village level where the dung is made into small cakes and dried and later on used as a fuel for cooking purposes. This is a great wastage of organic matter which needs to be utilized or managed in other ways so that both the energy and manure can be obtained from the livestock waste.

C. This method of manure utilization is popularized both by central and state government through bio-gas plant where manure is used for the production of methane under anaerobic (lack of oxygen) conditions. The methane gas is used for cooking purpose as well as the slurry after methane extraction is used as farm manure. This management and technique reduce methane emission in environment utilized the methane for cooking purpose and at the same time the valuable waste is utilized as a farm manure.

Manure can be a) solid manure, feed waste, soiled bedding, etc. and b) liquid – urine and detergent Water. Ideally, solid manure is usually collected and removed twice daily. India has about 535.78 million livestock and the amount of production of animal waste amounts to about 3 million tons per year. Together farm-level livestock waste includes manure, urine, placenta, bedding,Feed waste, milk house waste etc. These animal wastes are the biggest source of harmful gases, harmful pathogens and odors and therefore public health and environmental concerns. Livestock waste contains many useful substances components that, if recycled effectively, can be used as fertilizer for crops, food for animals. Economic savings are the biggest benefit of waste management achieved through improvements in human health and the environment, leading to higher productivity, lower medical costs, etc ultimate increase in farmers’ income. The animal waste is a major source of harmful gases, harmful pathogens, etc Odor;

Growth is the development of a plant as a whole or of a specific organ. Besides the genetic factors, the environmental factors grouped as climatic factors and soil factors influence plant growth. The supply of mineral nutrient elements to the plants is discussed in this chapter.

A complete analysis of plants detects large number of elements. But only certain elements are essential. An element is said to be essential if the plant cannot complete its life cycle without it, and if the malady (deficiency) that develops in plants in its absence can be remedied only by that element.

Earlier 16 elements were considered as essential for plant growth. They are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, iron, manganese, zinc, copper, molybdenum, boron and chlorine. Recently, sodium, cobalt, vanadium, silica, selenium, gallium, aluminium and iodine are added to the above list. One or the other of these elements (recently added) has been found to be essential for a particular species of plants.

Carbon dioxide, water and molecular oxygen are the forms in which C., H and O are assimilated by plants. Others are taken up by plants from the soil. Nutrient uptake by plants accounts for about 10 percent of total dry weight of crops, the remaining percentage being water. The chemical symbol and the ionic forms in which the essential elements are absorbed by the plants are as follows.

Manures are the plant and animal wastes that are used as source of plant nutrients. They release nutrients upon their decomposition.

Bulky organic manures contain small percentage of nutrients and they are applied in large quantities. e.g,. farmyard manure, compost, green manures.

Introduction

Manures are obtained from the plant residues, green manure, compost and animal wastes that are used as source of plant nutrients. They release nutrients after their decomposition. They essentially function as sustenance to the crops. They help in the proper cultivation of crops. The addition of manure enables the soil to hold more water. Organic manures have acids that dissolve the nutrients in the soil and make them available to the plants. manures can be grouped into bulky organic manures and concentrated organic manures. Brief dissection about manure given blow flow chart.

Bulky Organic Manure

Bulky organic manures are those materials of plant and animal origin, which contain small percentage of nutrients when added to the soil have tendency to decrease bulk density and to increase soil volume, thus providing better physical conditions for plant growth especially in coarse textured soils and also provide essential nutrients in smaller quantities than the chemical fertilizers. Characteristics of bulky organic manures:

Plants requires a number of nutrients for their growth and reproduction, of which six are primary in nature and they are,

1. Carbon - Plants are taking carbon from the air and soil
2. Hydrogen from water
3. Oxygen from water and air
4. Nitrogen from soil and it helps plants to synthesize protein for their growth they need to produce new tissues. Nitrogen is often in shortage in soil for the plants, and plants will try to take as much available from the soil at the same time too much of nitrogen will help the foliage growth and but not the setting of flowers and fruits.
5. Phosphorus stimulates root growth and helps the plants set flowers and seeds. Organic matter and activity of soil organisms increases the availability of phosphorus.

The word “Manure” is originated from the French word “Manoeuvrer” which refers to “work with soil”. The word Manure is also originate from Latin word “Manu” (hand) and operate (to work). Manures are the substances which are organic in nature, capable of supplying plant nutrients in available form, bulky in nature having low analytical value and having no definite composition and most of them are obtained from animal and plant waste products. Formerly, the word in use was “Dung ”in English (at present fertilizer).

Manuscript speaking is a public speaking method where a speaker delivers a pre-written speech word-for-word from a script. This style emphasizes precision and accuracy, making it ideal for contexts where exact wording is crucial, such as political addresses, legal declarations, academic presentations, and scientific reports. Commonly used in formal or high-stakes scenarios, manuscript speaking ensures consistent and accurate content delivery. However, it requires skillful execution to maintain audience engagement and avoid a monotonous or mechanical delivery.
Understanding Manuscript Speaking
Manuscript speaking is unique because the speaker relies entirely on a prepared text. This method ensures that every word, fact, and statistic is presented as intended, leaving little room for error. It is commonly used in:
1. Political Speeches: For accuracy in official addresses or statements.
2. Legal Proceedings: Where exact language is critical.
3. Scientific Presentations: To ensure technical accuracy.
4. Media Broadcasts: In scripted news delivery.
Key Components of Effective Manuscript Speaking
Mastering manuscript speaking involves more than just reading a script. It requires a balance of precise content, engaging delivery, and audience connection. Here are the key components that contribute to effective manuscript speaking:
1. Content Preparation
• Clarity and Structure: The script should be well-organized, with a logical flow of ideas.
• Audience-Centric Language: Use language that resonates with the audience’s knowledge level and interests.
• Highlighting Key Points: Ensure important ideas stand out with clear emphasis in the text.

Introduction

Fish and the aquaculture products contribute a significant amount of animal protein to the diet of the people worldwide. Being highly nutritive they serve as valuable food supplement in diets lacking essential vitamins and minerals. Besides its role of food security, fish is a source of income for millions of people around the World. Though the trade is not prominent at Global level, in some countries its contribution to foreign currency earning is vital to the National Economy. India has a coastline measuring 7500 km and important aquaculture country in the World. Being the home for more than 10% of the global fish biodiversity, the country ranks third in the World in the total fish production with an annual fish production of about 6.4 million tones. Constituting over the 1% of the GDP, fisheries contributes to 5.3% of the agricultural GDP. The estimated foreign earning for the year 2006 was US$ 1365 million.

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this paper is to map the diversity of Formicoidea, richness and habitat preferences with respective to the different forest cover, classified based on the NDVI from LANDSAT TM imagery with the help of remote sensing and GIS. The study is carried out in Sirumalai hills region of Dindigul District, Tamil Nadu state, India recorded a total of 26 species with 15 genera belonging to four sub-families by a taxonomical basis. The NDVI based forest classification results that the area has disturbed dry deciduous forest (SA), undisturbed dry deciduous forest (SB), disturbed mixed deciduous forest (SC), undisturbed semi evergreen forest (SD), undisturbed grassland (SE) and undisturbed dry evergreen forest (SF) types of forest covers. The results of diversity studies, statistical analyses and field study reveals that the tropical semi evergreen forest and tropical dry evergreen forest have yielded more number of species, genera than the mixed deciduous forest and dry deciduous forest which are most disturbed by human beings in establishment of estates, management strategies by the government and land use by the local farmers.

ABSTRACT

Mapping and exploration of iron ore deposits in parts of Salem District is carried out based on the detailed field work and the interpretations of IRS-1C PAN data in the scale of 1:12,500 and aerial photographs (NRSA, Scale 1:4,000). The study results that the major rock types of the study area are banded magnetite quartzite, garnetiferous pyroxene granulite, amphibolite, garnetiferous pyroxenite, charnokite, talc tremolite, actionalite and dunite rocks. The Banded Magnetite Quartzite’s (BMQ) occur as enclaves within the hornblende gneisses at several parts of the study area. Topographically, the rocks constitute small low-lying linear ridges at some places it is found to be closely associated with garnet pyroxene granulites. A remarkable feature about the mode of occurrence of magnetite quartzite is its linear nature and the physical form, which could be described as a “Band”. All the bands possess an ENE-WSW strike and the dip is found to be steep (above 70 degrees) towards north. The rock in the hills of Godumalai, Vellalagundam, and Singipuram are highly deformed and contact with garnetiferous pyroxene granulite and hornblende gneisses. In hand specimen, the magnetite quartzite rock exhibits fine banding. In general no variation in grain size or thickness of banding could be seen megascopically. However, occasional increase in size of magnetite might be possible as seen from the coarser magnetite pebbles strewn in the channels of the area. There are two types of folds observed namely F1 and F2. The axial plane trace of the F1 varies in trend from WNW-ESE to WSW – ENE. The joints are traced in the directions of NNW-SSE to NNE – SSW and WNW – ESE to ENE-WSW. The interpretation of lineaments shows their trend directions of NNE-SSW, NE-SWand NNW-SSE. The above said work has carried out through detailed field work and interpretations using by IRS-1C PAN data in the scale of 1:12,500 and aerial photographs of NRSA, in the scale of 1:4,000 for the study area.

ABSTRACT

With the increasing use of ground water for various activities, the fast decline in groundwater takes place. In order to prevent the aquifers from fast depletion, the ground water recharge is necessary. This study attempts to identify the favourable areas for groundwater recharge and suggest suitable recharge structures toaugment the aquifer system of the study area using Remote Sensing and GIS. The various thematic maps such as Geomorphology, Geology and lineaments, Soil, Slope, Land use, Drainage, Runoff, Depth to weathered zone, Groundwater level fluctuation and Water quality are used in the analysis. The favourable areas for groundwater recharge have been categorized into highly favourable, moderately favourable, less favourable and poor. To delineate areas favourable for recharge zone various themes are interpreted. The identification of ground water recharge zones for the study area is useful for improvement of water quality, quantity and better augmentation & management of Groundwater recharge.

Soil map is a map showing diversity of soil types and its properties such as pH, texture, organic matter and depth of horizons in the area of interest obtained as the end of soil survey. Generally, soil maps are used to simply identify soils and their properties, but are sometimes required for more specific purposes, such as the suitability of soils for a particular crop, suitability for irrigation, erosion risk and many other specific needs or environmental threats.

Soils fulfil many functions important for agriculture, forestry and the management of soil resources and natural hazards. The functionality of soils depends on their properties; hence, accurate and spatially highly resolved maps of basic soil properties such as texture, organic carbon content and pH for specific soil depth are needed for the sustainable management of soils. The surface soil organic carbon (SOC) concentration is a useful soil property to map soils, interpret soil properties, and guide fertilizer and agricultural chemical applications.

Traditionally farmers apply fertilizers, chemicals and other crop production inputs to optimize the production of the field as a whole. This results in application of over application of inputs and low inputs in certain locations of the field because of variation in field characteristics including soil organic carbon, soil texture, soil nutrients, field topography, and other properties. In addition, uniform applications may increase the chances of pollution of the environment due to excess application in some field area. Precision farming technology has been shown to optimize application rates if the variation of field characteristics can be used to guide the application rate of crop-production inputs. The organic carbon concentrations of surface soil have been used to spatially vary the application rate of some crop-production inputs. The surface soil organic carbon concentration affects the activity of many herbicides, influences plant-available nitrogen and also affects the soil’s ability to adsorb plant nutrients. Knowing its concentration may therefore be useful, especially if its spatial distribution could be determined accurately and for low cost.

Genetic Mapping

Perhaps one of the most powerful applications of markers is genetic mapping. This technology allows researchers identify markers located within or very close to genes of interest. With this it is possible to trace these genes through generations of crosses.

If the trait in question is complex and multigenic, mapping will also be of tremendous help to dissect the various genes or loci that contribute to the overall characteristic. Determining the amount of impact each locus delivers is a process called Quantitative Trait Loci or QTL mapping.

1. Introduction

Electronic theses and dissertations (ETDs) are a great resource for scholars in academic institutions. They assist academics in comprehending the study carried out in prior years. When study results are made accessible on an open access platform, they are extensively utilized for further inquiry and teaching purposes. Theses and dissertations need to be made publicly available so that the users can get access to it. So, the emergence of Shodhganga proves to be very useful to the students, researchers, faculties and all other users (Vijayakumar and Vijayakumar, 2007). A significant number of doctorate research projects are now being conducted worldwide in several fields within the natural sciences. Bibliometrics focusses on analyzing the attributes of published literature, such as the distribution of literature on different subjects, statistical examination of content kinds, references, citations, and co-citations within and across fields (Pritchard, 1969). Davarpanah and Aslekia (2008) conducted bibliometric research on PhD theses, however these investigations were often limited to a certain university or department. Shodhganga serves as a digital archive for freely accessible whole texts of Indian electronic theses.

Marburg virus (MV) disease was named after the West German town where the largest outbreaks of human infection was reported. It is also known as Vervet monkey or green monkey disease as monkey species introduced the disease in Europe. Marburg disease virus was reported in 1967 in Frankfurt-on-Main and Marburg, West Germany and Belgrade, Serbia in vaccine factory workers who came in contact with blood, organs or cell cultures of African green monkeys. Ebola and Marburg hemorrhagic fevers are severe zoonotic diseases seen not only in humans but also in non-human primates. Most species of Ebolavirus and the only known species of Marburg virus occur in Africa. Primates are infected sporadically from an unknown source probably bats. Humans seem to become infected directly from bats in caves, as well as when they, come in contact with tissues from infected apes and other species. Once the virus has entered the population, it can spread from person to person. Some epidemics affect hundreds of people. Although the mortality rate varies, 90% case fatalities have been reported in the most pathogenic viruses. No vaccine is available and the only treatment is supportive. Epizootics in gorillas and chimpanzees are equally serious, and appear to threaten the survival of these species in the wild. Other wild mammals including duikers also seem to be killed during outbreaks. One species of Ebolavirus, Reston Ebolavirus, occurs in the Philippines. Until 2008, this virus was known only as an infection of nonhuman primates. It does not appear to be a human pathogen; although some people in contact with this virus have seroconverted, they remained asymptomatic. In December 2008, Reston ebolavirus was discovered in pigs during an unusually severe outbreak of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) in the Philippines.

Etiology: Ebola and Marburg hemorrhagic fever are caused by members of the genera Ebolavirus and Marburgvirus, respectively. These viruses are the only members of the family Filoviridae. The genus Ebolavirus contains four recognized species: Zaire ebolavirus (formerly Zaire Ebola virus), Sudan ebolavirus (formerly Sudan Ebola virus), Ivory Coast ebolavirus (formerly Cote d'Ivoire Ebola virus) and Reston ebolavirus (formerly Reston Ebola virus). At least 13 strains of these viruses have been identified. A fifth species, tentatively named Bundibugyo ebolavirus, was isolated from a recent outbreak in Uganda. Marburg virus contains a single species, Lake Victoria Marburgvirus (formerly Marburg virus). Six strains of Lake Victoria Marburgvirus had been recognized as of 1990; at least nine genetically distinct strains were identified from a more recent outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Marburg virus contains ssRNA as genome. The virion is highly pleomorphic and measures 80 nm in diameter and 700-1000 nm in length. Filoviruses can be destroyed by autoclaving. Treatment with sodium hypochlorite (1:100 dilution of household bleach) or standard hospital disinfectants can also be used. Ebolaviruses are reported to be susceptible to 2% sodium hypochlorite, 2% glutaraldehyde, 5% peracetic acid and 1% formalin. These viruses can also be inactivated by ultraviolet light, gamma irradiation, 0.3% betapropiolactone for 30 minutes at 37°C (98.6°F), or heating to 60°C (140°F) for 1 hour. Marburgvirus is susceptible to 1% sodium hypochlorite, 2% glutaraldehyde or formaldehyde, ultraviolet light and heat.