eChapters

The present investigation entitled “Diagnostic Study of Farmers in context of Price spread analysis, marketing pattern and Potential assessment of agricultural diversification in Chenani Block of Udhampur district” was carried out during the year 2015. The sampling structure, experimental procedures and techniques adopted during the course of investigation have been described in this chapter.

3.1 Locale of study

The present study was conducted in Chenani block of Udhampur district in Jammu and Kashmir state. Mantalai, Kosar, Bupp and Bashath villages were randomly selected.

3.2 Climate and rainfall

The Jammu and Kashmir state is situated between 32⁰.17'–36⁰.58' North latitude and 37⁰.26´–80⁰.30´East longitude. The state is the northern most part of the India is girdled by Tibet to the east, China and Afghanistan to the north, to its west is Pakistan. To its south lies the states of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh and have been divided into three agro climatic divisions’ viz. outer plain and outer hills, middle mountains and Kashmir valley and inner Himalayas (Ladakh). The outer plains and outer hills includes Kathua and Jammu districts, extends up to Shivalik hills in the north. According to NARP (National Agricultural Research Project) classification this state has been divided into four agro-climatic zones: Temperate, Sub-tropical, Intermediate and Cold-Arid zone. In summer hot dry winds from plains of Punjab make it very hot, dust storms are common with occasional rain. Rainfall occurs from July to September. Average rainfall is 1143 mm and temperature shoots up to 46⁰C during May to June. During December to February temperature is between 13.5⁰C to 20⁰C, rainfall is 150 mm and in upper reaches there is snow. In the region of middle mountains and Kashmir valley winters are very cold. There is snowfall during winter and subzero temperature. In valley, winters are long and summers are short but pleasant. Average rainfall is 732 to 854 mm. The maximum temperature hardly ever goes beyond 35⁰C. In region of inner Himalayas, days are hot and there are no clouds in the sky. Winters are very cold. Temperature falls as low as minus 23⁰C. The average rainfall is 976 mm and humidity level is very low.

3.1 Introduction

Greenhouses are buildings with a controlled environment that facilitate plant culture and development. They offer protection from adverse external weather conditions, high temperatures, strong winds, and pests, while providing an ideal environment for plant growth. The construction of a greenhouse involves the use of various materials to ensure its structural stability, longevity, light transmission, and insulation. The different components of the greenhouse, such as the frame, flooring, and covering, are constructed using different materials such as wood, aluminum, steel, concrete, soil, gravel, and more.

Materials Management deals with purchasing and controlling of the materials used in the production process.

Materials (Goods) Planning and Control

Decisions to be taken in this are:

• Amount of materials needed for output desired
• Amount of inventory and its storage and reordering
• Vendor relations
• Quality materials and price per unit
• Quantity and time of order
• Methods of receiving and transporting
• Handling of defective materials and stock

Policies and procedures should be established so that most of these decisions become routine in nature. When exceptions occur, the concerned authority should correct them.

Classification of Materials

Broadly there are two groups of materials used for making farm machines namely metallic and non-metallic:

Aim: To prepare a list of materials used for ammobilisation for fractured limb with gum bandage. Materials required

Aquariums are purpose-built enclosures designed to simulate natural aquatic environments, offering a stable habitat for fish, plants, and other waterdwelling organisms. Their construction requires careful planning to ensure structural durability, environmental stability, and long-term functionality. The materials used in building aquariums are crucial, as they directly impact the tank’s strength, clarity, water resistance, ease of upkeep, and overall visual appeal.
Glass, acrylic, and silicone sealants are among the most commonly utilized materials in aquarium construction, each bringing distinct advantages. Glass is known for its clear visibility and scratch resistance, while acrylic is preferred for larger or uniquely shaped tanks due to its lighter weight and design flexibility. Silicone adhesives play a vital role in sealing joints and enhancing the tank’s waterholding
capability.
Material selection varies depending on several factors, including the tank’s size, design, placement, budget, and whether it will house freshwater or marine species. A solid grasp of these materials is essential for creating safe, efficient, and attractive aquariums—whether for personal use, public display, or commercial purposes.
GLASS, ACRYLIC, SILICONE ADHESIVES
Glass
Glass has been a staple material for centuries, used across a variety of applications, including aquariums. It’s the most familiar choice for fish tanks due to its strength, transparency, and cool, smooth surface. Its solid feel and clarity make it a favorite for both hobbyists and professionals.

So far, we have seen the examples in which mode of inheritance of a particular character is tied to the behaviour of the nucleus or more specifically to the chromosomes. In other words, transmission of a character and its appearance in the individuals can be predicted from the knowledge of chromosome segregation and independent assortment. This analogy gets further strengthened on the ground that the DNA has been considered as the basic genetic material and practically all the cellular DNA is localized in the chromosomes. It has also been seen that DNA does not produce an organism alone but obviously depends upon an already existing medium in order to function. Thus, genotypic effects may considerably get modified by the environment. In the cell itself, one important source of environmental effect is the cytoplasm immediately surrounding the nucleus. The components of the cytoplasm may show wide variation between the individuals and therefore it cannot be ruled out that a genotype in one cytoplasm may function somewhat differently than the same genotype placed directly into another cytoplasm. It is well known fact that the cytoplasmic contribution of one of the parents in form of an egg is considerably larger than the cytoplasmic contribution of the other parent in form of sperm. For example, cross-fertilization between two strains capable of producing both sperm and eggs, leads to contribution of ‘A’ genotype and ‘a’ egg cytoplasm in one case and of ‘B’ genotype and ‘b’ egg cytoplasm in the other case. Thus, the cross-fertilized diploid zygotes have two possible genotypic-cytoplasmic combinations, namely, AB-a, and AB-b depending upon which strain provides the egg. If the egg is contributed by the A parent, then the genotype of the progeny shall be AB-a, and if the egg is contributed by the B parent, then the genotype of the progeny shall be AB-b. If each such cytoplasm produces a unique phenotype, then AB-b would have the same b phenotype as BB-b individuals. Such effects produced by the egg cytoplasm are termed as maternal effects.

7.1 The Formula Palette

By clicking on the equals sign in the formula bar a drop – down panel called the formula palette appeared.

Consider an example, type number 25 in cell A1 and move the cell pointer to cell B2. type or click the equal sign in the formulabar. Adrop – down panel will display formula result = and wait for further inputs. Enter sqrt result to 5 at B2.

The dialog box divides into parts as

(a) Name of the function at the top left of the argument entry box.

(b) Below of this there is the definition or description of the function.

(c) Next, there is an entry explanation.

(d) Formula result.

Things to remember: Any statistical or mathematical function can be activated with = (equal to) sign.

Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 The average value of a random fenamenon is termed as “Mathematical Expectation” or “Expected value” of random fenamenon.

Q.2 The mathematical expression to compute the expected value of a discrete random variable X with its p.m.f. f(x) is def ned as

Introduction

Flat plate collector is the heart of a solar heat collection system designed for delivery of heated fluid in the low to medium temperature range (5o70oC above ambient temperature) for applications, such as water heating, space heating, drying and similar industrial applications. The flat plate collectors absorb both beam and diffuse radiation. The absorbed radiation is converted into heat which is transferred to water or air flowing through the collector tubes or duct, respectively. Such collectors do not require tracking of the sun and little maintenance is required.

The conventional flat plate solar air heater, shown in Fig. 7.1, consists of a flat blackened absorber plate, a transparent cover (such as a glass cover) at the top and insulation at the bottom and on the sides. The air to be heated flows through the rectangular duct below the absorber plate. The glass cover transmits a major part of solar radiation incident upon it to the absorber plate where it is converted into heat. The glass is, however, opaque to longwavelength radiation and thus it does not allow the infrared radiation from the heated absorber plate to escape.

Karwa et al. (2002) have presented the following deductions of heat collection rate and pumping power equations for the flat plate solar air heater.

Short Transmission Line

A short transmission line is defined as a transmission line with an effective length less than 80 km (50 miles), or with a voltage less than 69 kV. Unlike medium transmission lines and long transmission lines, the line charging current is negligible, and hence the shunt capacitance can be ignored.

For short length, the shunt capacitance of this type of line is neglected and other parameters like electrical resistance and inductor of these short lines are lumped, hence the equivalent circuit is represented as given below. Let’s draw the vector diagram for this equivalent circuit, taking receiving end current Ir as reference. The sending end and receiving end voltages make angle with that reference receiving end current, of φs and φr , respectively.

Solar Photovoltaic

A single solar cell cannot provide required useful output. Therefore, to increase output power level of a PV system, it is required to connect number of such PV solar cells. A solar module is normally series connected sufficient number of solar cells to provide required standard output voltage and power. One solar module can be rated from 3 watts to 300 watts. The solar modules or PV modules are commercially available basic building block of a solar electric power generation system.

Actually, a single solar PV cell generates very tiny amount that is around 0.1 watt to 2 watts. But it is not practical to use such low power unit as building block of a system. So required number of such cells are combined together to form a practical commercially available solar unit which is known as solar module or PV module.

7.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the development of data logger of agricultural field parameter monitoring system with MATLAB. The system comprises of Arduino, water level sensor, humidity sensor, light sensor, soil moisture sensor, temperature sensor, smoke detector, power supply, PC with MATLAB. The system is designed to monitor the environment and agriculture field parameters. The field device is designed to collect all physical parameters and same is communicated serially to MATLAB with I/O package. Fig.7.1 shows block diagram of the system. Table.7.1 shows the component list required to develop the system.

Eigen values of the matrix are

(A) 1 and 2             (B) 1 and 3

(C) 1 and 4            (D) 2 and 3

8.1 Matrix

An arrangement of m×n elements into m rows and n columns is called a matrix. A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers usually represented by enclosing the array in brackets.

Order of a Matrix : The number of rows and columns is called the ‘dimension’ or ‘order’ of the matrix.

Matrix is a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and columns. The order of a matrix is written as r x c, where r is the no. of rows and c is the no. of columns. The numbers included in a matrix are called elements of the matrix. The name of the matrix is denoted by an uppercase English alphabet.

Maturity at harvest is the most important determinant of storage life and final fruit quality. Maturity indices are determined for many fruit, vegetable and floral crops. Harvesting crops at proper maturity allows handlers to begin their work with the best possible quality produce. Produce harvested too early may lack flavour and may not ripen properly, while produce harvested too late may be fibrous or over ripe.
 
Almost all fruits reach their best eating quality when allowed to ripen on the tree or plant (exceptions e.g., pears, avocados, and bananas). In general, fruits become sweeter, more colourful, and softer as they mature. A few fruits are usually picked mature but unripe so that they withstand post harvest handling system when shipped long distances.  Most of  currently used maturity evaluation is based on a compromise between those methods that would ensure the best eating quality and those that provide flexibility in transportation and marketing.  Optimum harvesting stage depends upon type of fruit or vegetable and their final use. Such a division is usually based on their classification according to physiology, environmental conditions, ripening bahaviour and nutritional aspect. Some of the classifications, important for their harvesting and storage are briefed in  subsequent sections.

Physiological Development

Fruits and vegetables can be divided into 3 stages based n their physiological development i.e. growth, maturation and senescence.

Growth: This generally refers to cell division, enlargement and differentiation ultimately giving a particular size, weight and volume to the commodity.

Maturation: It is initiated before the ceasation of growth and lasts till the onset of senescence.

Senescence: The stage when anabolic (synthetic) processes almost terminate and catabolic (degradative) processes are initiated and speeded up causing ageing and finally death of tissues.

Ripening: Stage that begins with the last stages of maturation and lasts till the beginning (first stage) of senescence. Ripening is a very important event in the life of a plant as it transforms a physiologically mature but inedible (or not preferred to be eaten) plant part into an edible, visually and olfactorily attractive and tasty commodity. Ripening marks the completion of developmental phase and is an irrevessible event.

3.1. Maturity

• During process of maturation, fruit receives regular supply of food material from plant.

• When mature, abscission or corky layer forms at stern end stops inflow.

• Afterwards, fruit depends on own reserves, carbohydrates dehydrated and sugars accumulate until sugar acid ratio form.

• In addition, typical flavour and characteristic colour also develop.

• Stage of maturity at the time of picking influence storage life and quality of fruit

• Fruits harvested over mature or full ripe are easily susceptible to microbial and physiological spoilage and storage life reduction.

• Necessary to pick up fruits or vegetables at correct stage of maturity to facilitate proper ripening, distant transportation and maximum storage life.

• Principles of harvest maturity

? Harvested commodity should have its peak acceptable quality when it reaches the consumer.

? Produce should develop an acceptable flavour or appearance.

? Produce should have optimum size and shape required by the market.

Maturity

It is derived from Latin word ‘Maturus’ which means ripen. It is that stage of fruit development, which ensures attainment of maximum edible quality at the completion of ripening process.

Maturation

It is the developmental process by which the fruit attains maturity. It is the transient phase of development from near completion of physical growth to attainment of physiological maturity. There are different stages of maturation e.g. immature, mature, optimally mature, over mature.

Maturity Indices

The factors for determining the harvesting of horticulture commodities according to consumer purpose and type of commodity.

Maturity Indices is two type

1. MATURITY INDICES

Maturity indices (right time of harvesting) are quality factors that give clues as to when a product should be harvested to allow marketing flexibility and ensure the attainment of minimum acceptable quality to the user. It also refers to the set of criteria used to determine the stage of maturity for harvesting the horticultural crops. Commodities harvested either pre-mature or too late are more susceptible to postharvest physiological disorders, diseases and have poor shelf life than harvested at right stage of maturity. The pickers/ handlers are trained in methods of identifying produce that is ready for harvest. However, optimum harvesting stages depends upon type of produce and their final use. Horticultural crops may be harvested at two main maturity levels i.e., physiological maturity and commercial or horticultural maturity. Therefore, the proper stage/maturity indices for harvesting of all horticultural crops should be identified for their implementation during harvesting. Horticultural maturity in relation to developmental stages of the plants is depicted in Fig 3.1.

1. MATURITY INDICES
Maturity indices (right time of harvesting) are quality factors that give clues as to when a product should be harvested to allow marketing flexibility and ensure the attainment of minimum acceptable quality to the user. It also refers to the set of criteria used to determine the stage of maturity for harvesting the horticultural crops. Commodities harvested either pre-mature or too late are more susceptible to postharvest physiological disorders, diseases and have poor shelf life than harvested at right stage of maturity. The pickers/ handlers are trained in methods of identifying produce that is ready for harvest. However, optimum harvesting stages depends upon type of produce and their final use. Horticultural crops may be harvested at two main maturity levels i.e., physiological maturity and commercial or horticultural maturity. Therefore, the proper stage/maturity indices for harvesting of all horticultural crops should be identified for their implementation during harvesting. Horticultural maturity in relation to developmental stages of the plants is depicted in Fig 3.1.
Maturity indices are different for different horticultural crops and are employed to:
1. Ensure sensory quality (flavour, colour, aroma, and texture) and nutritional quality: Harvesting horticultural produce too early (under-developed or immature produce) will result

The horticultural produce includes fruits, vegetables, flowers, plantation crops and spices. However, fruits and vegetables are the most consumed and important commodity among them. Morphologically and physiologically, the fruits and vegetables are highly variable and may come from a root, stem, leaf, immature or fully mature and ripe fruits. They have variable shelf life and require different suitable conditions during marketing. All fresh horticultural crops are high in water content and are subjected to desiccation (wilting, shrivelling) and to mechanical injury. Various authorities have estimated that 20-30% of fresh horticultural produce is lost after harvest and these losses can assume considerable economic and social importance.

Maturity

It is the state of reaching a stage of full or advanced development of tissue of fruits and vegetables, after which it will ripen normally. During the process of maturation, the fruit receives a regular supply of food material from the plant and at maturity, the abscission or corky layer formed at the stem end stops this inflow. Afterwards, the fruit depend on its own reserves, and carbohydrates are dehydrated and sugars start accumulating until the sugar acid ratio formation. In addition to this, typical flavour and characteristic colour also develop. It has been determined that the stage of maturity at the time of picking influence the storage life and quality of fruit, when picked immature like mango develop white patches or air pockets during ripening, thus lacks in in normal brix acid ratio or sugar acid ratio, taste and flavour. On the other hand, if the fruits are harvested over mature or full ripe, then they are easily susceptible to microbial and physiological spoilage and their storage life is considerably reduced. Such fruits continue to show numerous problems during handling, storage and transportation. Therefore, it is necessary or essential to pick up the fruits or vegetables at correct stage of maturity to facilitate proper ripening, distant transportation and to obtain maximum storage life.

Maturity indices and their adoption at harvesting and in post harvest management of fruits provide a information against quality loss, microbial decay and deterioration of external appeal. Fruit harvesting at proper stage of maturity has direct effect on quality and market value of produce. Stage of harvesting also influence the after harvest enzymatic activities of the horticultural produce, which determines the levels of different pigments, sugars, acids and vitamins in fruits, flowers and vegetables. Maturity can be described as the attainment of a particular size, stage after which ripening takes place. However, horticultural maturity is defined as the stage of development when a plant or plant part possess the prerequisites for utilization by consumers for a particular purpose. Cucumbers, lettuce and peppers are harvested at various stages (Horticultural maturity) prior to reaching physiological maturity, or completion of growth phase.

There are many methods to determine produce maturity. The most common is the size of the individual commodity.Some other commonly used crude methods are colour change, Softening of the tissues (fig,sapota) ease of detachment from the stalk (Sapota, annona), shrivelling of fruit stalk (water melon), time elapsed from the date of flowering to picking maturity, sound by tapping jack and water melon when ripe produce hollow and dull sound on tapping but produce metallic sound if unripe etc. Another physical characteristic is the firmness and it is determined with a pressure tester. Firmness is often correlated with chemical changes that occur during ripening. Chemical characteristics include TSS, acidity, sugar, vitamins and pigments. There are certain test which accurately gives the maturity measurements such as use of colour charts (judge colour), penetrometers (firmness), brix: acid ratio etc. Other recent methods viz. thermal conductivity X-rays and NIR have also come in practice to judge the maturity of fruits and vegetables. Some commonly use maturity indices are given below in some of the important fruits.

Horticulture crops contribute significantly for the total agricultural production and productivity. World production of fruits accounted for the total volume of 933 million tonnes (FAO, 2023). India being second largest producer for majority of fruit commodities had a production total reaching 108.34 million tonnes in 2022-2023 from an area of 7.15 million hectares. It accounts for 33 per cent to the agriculture GVA (Gross Value Added) and plays an important role in the Indian economy. India is second largest producer of majority of fruits and vegetables. Diverse agro-climatic zones in the country make it possible to grow almost all varieties of fruits in India. Produced fruits are used for domestic consumption, processing and export purposes. During 2022 23, fresh fruits exports was valued at 6219.46 crores (APEDA, 2023). The fruits grown in India includes domestic fruits and nuts along with the exotic fruits contributing for the food and nutritional security. The growth of these economically important fruits provides scope for maintaining rich germplasm, enhance bio-diversity and maintain ecological balance.

Objectives

1. To study the maturity indices of various spices and condiments.
2. To study the harvesting time and yield of various spices and condiments.

Maturity: A stage of attainment of final state of biological function beyond which growth and development ceases.

Maturity indices: An indication of appropriate stage of harvesting of the produce.

Harvesting: It is deliberate action to separate the plant product from its source of attachment.

Why harvesting at right stage for spices and condiments?

1. To avoid loss of flavour and volatile oils
2. Reduction in yield due to shattering
3. To get the higher yield
4. Recovery of more essential oil
5. Chances of attack of mycotoxigenic and storage pest

Maturity can be defined as the attainment of a particular size or stage after which ripening takes place. It is also called physiological maturity. However,horticultural maturity is defined as the stage of development, when a plant or plant part possesses the prerequisites for utilization by consumers for a particular purpose. Mango, tomato, cucumbers, lettuce, peppers, etc. are harvested at various stages depending on the objective of disposal (horticultural maturity) prior to reaching physiological maturity, or completion of growth phase.

Maturity indices are the most important for deciding the stage of harvesting and to reduce post-harvest losses. The post harvest life of fruits are mainly controlled by maturity. Maturity signs are also called maturity standards or maturity indices. Maturity signs help in judging maturity of fruits and vegetables. There are many methods to determine maturity. The most common is the size and shape of fruit, change in colour, softening of tissues (fig, sapota), ease of detachment from the stalk (sapota, annona), shriveling of fruit stalk (watermelon), drying of nearest tendril (watermelon), days from blooming to picking maturity, sound by tapping jack and watermelon, when ripe produce hollow and dull sound on tapping but produce metallic sound if unripe etc.

Maturity of Cashewnut

Cashew fruit has two parts namely cashew nut (actual fruit) and cashew apple (pseudo fruit). Development of these is not parallel. Cashew nut develops first and the pseudo fruit develops later. It takes 60 days for both the nut and the pseudo fruit to develop completely since anthesis. Development of cashew apple and nut has been studied by number of workers in different cashew varieties (Rao et al., 1962; Augustin and Unnithan, 1981; Mohan Kumar et. al., 1984; Antarkar and Joshi, 1987). According to the report, specific gravity could be considered as physical index of maturity of nut in cashew varieties of V-1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 (Antarkar and Joshi, 1987; Mohan Kumar et al., 1984). In Thailand, the nut reached maximum size in 4 weeks after fruit set, hardened in the subsequent week and declined in size by 10 per cent at harvest (Sumrit Feungehan et al., 1989). Augustin and Unnithan (1981) have reported that the growth of nut is faster during early stage of development than that of fruit. All these reports indicate that the cashew nut develops earlier than cashew apple. Changes in the composition of cashew nut and apple during development have been looked into by various workers. Hariharan et al. (1985) have reported decrease in amino acid content in kernel with increased maturity. Cashew kernel lipid, free amino acids and CNSL have been shown to increase with increased maturity. Similarly, cashew kernel phenols have been shown to decrease with maturity. Changes in the kernel sugars and starch were not uniform (Anon., 1998).

5.1 Introduction

In many problems of economics, we may want to know how small or how large a certain quantity may become. In other words, we may want to know the minimum and maximum values of some functions of variables.

The term ‘optimisation’ may be used in general, both for maximisation and minimisation. The term ‘optimal position’ is often applied to the ‘equilibrium position’ resulting from the balancing of the forces.

Increasing crop productivity while reducing resource consumption is a central objective of modern agriculture. This chapter examines how artificial intelligence can support crop yield improvement through data-driven analysis, prediction, and decision-making. AI models can integrate information from soil, weather, crop growth, remote sensing, IoT sensors, and historical yield records to identify important factors influencing productivity. Machine learning and deep learning approaches can support yield forecasting, crop selection, fertilizer and water optimization, and precision management. The chapter also considers AI-enabled genomic selection, market intelligence, and intelligent farm management. Challenges such as data availability, implementation cost, connectivity, farmer training, and model reliability are discussed alongside future opportunities including edge AI and explainable AI.

A climate-resilient agriculture, which we need urgently, will have to be based on a two-pronged strategy: maximising farm productivity and production during a normal monsoon period, and minimising the adverse impact of unfavourable weather as witnessed during 2009.  Unfortunately, we are yet to develop an anticipatory research and extension programme to minimise damage during unfavourable monsoon periods.  For example, the deficiency in rainfall during the southwest monsoon of 2009 was 23 per cent.  The growth in agriculture and allied sector GDP was minus 0.2.  The highest growth rate in agriculture GDP of 5.2 per cent was observed during 2005-06 when the growth in total GDP was 9.5 per cent.  Had we had a scientific monsoon management strategy, we could have minimised the loss in 2009-10.  Similarly, if we have a strategy for maximising the benefits of a good monsoon, we can hope to achieve at least 5 per cent growth rate during 2010-11 in agriculture and allied sectors.  In parts of China like the Yunnan province, which has experienced 60 per cent less rainfall than normal, there is a move to grow different crops together in the same field, thereby distributing the risk arising from monoculture. It is time to develop a pro-active monsoon management strategy.

Crops treated with pesticides invariably contain small amount of these chemicals and the hazard depends on the amount of pesticide residues that remain on the crop and their toxicity. The amount of residue that may remain on crop or food commodity and environmental commodities depend on the nature of pesticides, good agricultural practice, environmental conditions and adoption of safe waiting periods and other perfect methods of storage. As residues are inevitable by product of pesticide use, hence pesticide residue in food commodities and their entry in to food chain has become major cause of concern all over the world. The plant science industry has a responsibility to assist farmers to produce crops that are acceptable to the food chain and consumers alike.

It is clear that pesticide residues in farm produce should be kept as low as practicable, and eliminated whenever possible through Good Agricultural Practices (GAP). However, the use of pesticides can be regulated to ensure minimum residues on food which can be considered safe to human consumption and environment as a whole.

To regulate pesticide residues to safe levels, a concept was introduced by Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (1955) and Codex Alimentarius Commissionwas established in 1964 to implement the Joint FAO/ WHO Food Standard Programmes. The Commission has laid down principles for aiming at the maximum residue limits (Tolerance limits) of pesticide on food commodities. The recommendations are based on:

Abstract

Worldwide trend in fruit crops has shifted to high density or meadow orcharding to manage tree size for desired architecture to allow better light interception and easy in operations such as pruning, pest control and harvesting. The meadow orcharding facilitates increase production as well as quality of fruits. High density planting (HDP) is one of the recent and novel concepts of increasing the productivity without affecting the quality of fruits. The HDP has been successfully demonstrated in fruit crops such as apple, mango, citrus, banana, pineapple and guava. However, for more location specific benefit research must continue on appropriate plant canopy, integrated nutrient management suitable varieties, ageing of orchard and tree replacement. HDP accommodates more number of trees per unit area ranging from 500-10,000 plants/ha depending on the type of fruit crop and the level of density such as medium high density 500-1500 plants/ha, optimum high density 1,500-10,000 plants/ha ultra-high density 10,000-1,00,000 plants/ha. High density orcharding is a highly technical entrepreneurship where nutrient management, irrigation and canopy management practices widely vary from traditional orchards hence growers must have full execution knowledge of this technology in present as well as future perspective. Post harvest, storage and marketing are closely associated with the success of HDP technology. Fruit yield increases 2 to 4 times vertically enhancing income of fruit growers.

Wet sieving procedure separates soil into different size aggregates. However, for comparing the aggregate size distribution among management treatments and soil types, it is convenient to use indices. Mean weight diameter (MWD) and water stable aggregate percentage are some of the common indices used in aggregate stability studies.

Mean Weight Diameter (MWD)

This index was proposed by Van Bavel (1949) and is being used widely. The entire soil sample is passed through an 8 mm sieve prior to analysis and is subjected to wet sieving procedure as described before. The parameter which Van Bavel (1949) called the MWD is equal to the sum of the product of (a) the mean diameter (d ) of each size fraction and (b) the proportion of the total sample weight (w ) occurring in the corresponding size fraction. The summation is carried out over all ‘n’ size fraction including the one that passes through the finest sieve.

Participation means different things to different people. They way participant is defined largely depends upon the context and back ground in which participation is applied. While the Economic Commission for Latin America (1973) considers contribution by the people to public programmes to the complete exclusion of any involvement in the decision making process as participation. Cohem and Uphoff (1977) maintain that participation tools includes the peoples involvement in the entire decision making process. Like Cohem & Uphoff, FAO (1982) emphasizes participation in all the decision making processes but by the people’s organization and through self organized action. Paul (1987) introduces the concept of enhancement of well-being in terms of values cherished by the communities as being the ultimate objective of participation.

We mean sustainable of agriculture as preservation of productivity of land for a long period. This requires deviation from present methods of cultivation. The deviation needs knowledge about ecological process. At present we mean agriculture in association with terms like, high-tech, bio-tech and info-tech. Our traditional farming system or conventional farming system essentially means sustainable agriculture.

Need of an average

Through frequency distribution are the condensed form of raw data, but these are not sufficient for making comparison between two or more data. Therefore further condensation of frequency distribution into a single figure is made. This single f igure is always representative of the frequency distribution and such a figure is known as average.

Measure of Central Tendency

According to Croxten and Cowden “An average is a single value within the range of the data that is used to represent all the values in the series”. A statistical measure used for representing the centre of central value of a set of observations is known as “Measure of Central Tendency”. It is also called as “Measure of f irst order”.

Characteristics of an ideal Measure of Central Tendency

An ideal measure of central tendency should possess the following properties:

1) It should be rigidly defined i.e. it has a fixed and finite value

2) It should be easy to understand 3) It should be easy to calculate

4) Its calculation should be based on all the observations

5) It should be capable for further algebraic treatment

6) It should not be affected by extreme values of the observations

7) It should be least affected by fluctuations of sampling

Dispersion

Measure of central tendency tells about the central position of the series. They do not throw like on the formation of series because in some cases, two series may have a same measure of central tendency but differ in their composition. In order to study the formation, composition, structure and scatteredness of the items of the series, measure of second order are necessary. The measure of second order will give idea about the formation of the series. As the representation of a series on the basis of its measure of central tendency is not sufficient but when a series is represented on the basis of its measure of central tendency as well as its measure of dispersion, then it will give the complete adequate representation of the series. Therefore, it is defined as the extent or degree of which data tend to spread around an average is called the dispersion. It is also known as variability or measure of second order.

Characteristics of an ideal Measure of Dispersion

An ideal measure of dispersion should possess the following properties:

1) It should be rigidly defined i.e. it has a fixed and finite value

2) It should be easy to understand

3) It should be easy to calculate

4) Its calculation should be based on all the observations

5) It should be capable for further algebraic treatment

6) It should not be affected by extreme values of the observations

7) It should be least affected by fluctuations of sampling

Object: Measurement of absorption spectrum of chloroplastic pigments.

Material required: Spectrophotometer, plant leaves, ethanol, electric balance, beaker, test tubes and water.

Temperature influences most plant processes, including photosynthesis, transpiration, respiration, germination, flowering, adaptation and distribution of crops. As temperature increases (up to a point), photosynthesis, transpiration, and respiration increase. When combined with day-length, temperature also affects the change from vegetative (leafy) to reproductive (flowering) growth. Depending on the situation and the specific plant, the effect of temperature can either speed up or slow down this transition.

Temperature is the measure of mean kinetic energy per molecule of the molecules in an object, while the heat is the measure of total kinetic energy of all the molecules of that object. A large object may  have a much lower temperature than a small object and may still have greater heat content by virtue of larger number of molecules in it. Thus heat and temperature are not the same.

Cloud is a visible aggregate of minute water droplets and/or ice particles, or both in the air usually above the general ground level. Clouds are the most important form of suspended water droplets caused by condensation. There is no precipitation without clouds.

11.1. Measuring Instrument

The cloudy hours are measured with the help of eye or sensory parts of the body. No particular instrument is required for cloud amount or cloud cover measurement in the sky.

The most established method for detecting crop water stress remotely is through the measurement of a crop’s surface temperature. The correlation between surface temperature and water stress is based on the assumption that as a crop transpires, the evaporated water cools the leaves below that of air temperature. As the crop becomes water stressed, transpiration will decrease, and thus the leaf temperature will increase. Other factors need to be accounted for in order to get a good measure of actual stress levels, but leaf temperature is one of the most important.

Introduction

All biological reactions in soil are catalyzed by enzymes. Soil enzyme activities are believed to indicate the extent of specific processes in soil and in some cases, can act as indicators of soil fertility. Biological oxidation of organic compounds is generally a dehydrogenation process and there are many dehydrogenases that carry out the following reaction:

XH₂ is an organic compound and is a hydrogen donor and A is a hydrogen acceptor. These systems are integral part of the microorganisms, so dehydrogenase activity can be correlated with active population.

Principle

Measurement of dehydrogenase activity involves determination of Triphenyl formazan (TPF) produced by the reduction of Triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC). TTC is a redox indicator, a yellow coloured water soluble salt which possesses the property of being easily transformed into, methanol soluble formazan (intensely coloured, water insoluble) by reduction. 

Dew acts as a source of moisture for the crop plants. It causes reduction in transpiration rate and saving of soil moisture reserves. Dew fall helps in insect-pest and diseases spread in crop plants.

14.1 Dew and Conditions for Dewfall

The radiational cooling during night causes the moisture to saturate and further cooling results into condensation and depositing this moisture in the form of tiny droplets on the grasses, vegetative and other non-conducting surfaces. This deposition form is known as dew. Clear nights, low wind velocity in the order of 1.0 to 3.0 m/s, presence of moderate to high moisture (RH = 75%) and sufficient radiational cooling are the four necessary and conductive conditions for the occurrence of dew.

Sunshine means incoming solar radiation, which consists of a bundle of rays of different wavelengths. At the top of the atmosphere, the amount of radiant energy received is found to be constant (1.94 cal/cm2/min). The receipt of the radiant energy, which is received on the earth and on crop surface, is influence by the cloudy and sunny or clear sky conditions. The brightness hours of the sunshine are an important parameter, which not only influence microclimate of a place but also the photosynthesis of the crop. The radiant energy of intensity of 0.17 cal/cm²/min or 120 W/m² and above is known to specify the bright sunshine.

The change of state of water form solid or liquid to gaseous form is known as evaporation. It may be defined as the water loss in vapour form from a soil/water surface. The energy used in this process is called as latent heat. The energy of 540 cal/g of water is used in this process. This process plays a major role in the redistribution of thermal energy between the earth and the atmosphere. Water vapour diffuses into the atmosphere from the different natural surfaces like ocean, river, lake, pond, soil and plant etc. It is difficult to measure the evaporation from the natural surfaces. To measure the evaporation from open water surface is easy and is normally in practice. The rate of evaporation is dependent on the size of the measuring surface (Pan) at constant wind speed below saturation point. Therefore a measured surface (Pan) is designed to measure the evaporation.