eChapters

Minimum field standards for seed production have been prescribed  for each crop. The major components to be looked into for meeting the field standards are: 
   Preceding crops 
   Isolation distance 
   Number of field inspections 

The minimum proceding crop requirement has been specified to minimize genetic contamination on account of volunteer plants germinating from the left over seeds in the previous season. The disease contamination is also possible from soil borne disease organisms if the previous crop was not certified. The preceding crop requirement would mean that for a prescribed minimum period the same crop or any other contaminating crop should not have been grown on the same field where seed production is to be taken up unless the preceding crop was a seed crop and had met the field/the seed standards.

Certified seed must meet certain seed standards in order to ensure an adequate level of seed purity along with the reasonable level of seed germination so that the farmer gets a good stand of the crop conforming to the varietal description. The components of the seed standard are as follows :
     The minimum percentage of pure seed 
     The maximum permissible limit for inert matter 
     Other crops seeds  
     Weed seeds 
     The maximum permissible limit for objectionable weeds 
     The maximum permissible limits of seeds of other distinguishable varieties (ODV) 
     Maximum permissible limits of seeds infected by seed bone diseases 
These standards are ensured in the seed crop by strictly adhering to field standards and careful harvesting, threshing, seed drying and then brining the same to the seed processing /seed conditioning plants. The Indian minimum seed standards for different crops are given in Tables 24.1-24.3 (Agarwal, 1995).

Seed certification is a legal programme to maintain and make available to the public high quality seeds and planting material of genetically distinct crop varieties. Under seed production programme, quality seed is produced by govt. farms research stations, progressive farmers and seed producers using careful quality control, pedigreed plant stock, field inspections during the growing season and seed inspections after the harvest. Certification is an officially recognized method for maintaining varietal identity of the seed. In India certification is carried out by State Seed Certification Agencies.

Seed quality is a multiple criterion that encompasses several important attributes. A seed scientist may be concerned with each quality characteristic of an individual seed while the seed trader normally considers the quality components of a seed lot. Any individual seed may possess certain measurable seed quality components which include:

After harvesting and threshing, the seed usually arrives at the cleaning plant with trash, green leaves, weeds, other crop seeds and insects, etc. If the seed contains leaves, etc. and other high moisture materials, it cannot be accurately cleaned and safely stored until most of the foreign material has been removed. The process of removing the unwanted materials from a seed lot is known as seed conditioning. Seed conditioning is an essential component of seed technology to ensure that the farmers get the seed of high quality.

Seed enhancement is the process or technology to further improve seed performances under very specific regimes and with certain planting equipment. Three major seed enhancement technologies are as follows (Copeland and McDonald, 1995). 
        Seed hydration 
        Biological seed treatments 
        Seed coatings

The purpose of seed storage is to preserve planting seed from one season  to the next. Further, the objective of seed storage is to maintain seed quality for the longest duration possible. 

Relative Humidity and Temperature Influence Seed Storability

The two most important factors that influence the storability of seed are relative humidity and temperature. The effects of relative humidity and its subsequent effect on seed moisture and the temperature of the storage environment are highly inter- dependent. Harrington (1963) gave two useful thumb rules for relative humidity and temperature in reference to storage life of the seed. These rules are as follows :

Hybrid technology is one of the options to boost crop productivity. Hybrids give more yield than improved varieties under optimum crop production conditions. Further, uniform size, earliness, better adaptability to adverse environments, better transportability due to better keeping quality and resistance to stresses are certain additional advantages of growing hybrids with better monetary return to the growers. Hence in coming years, hybrid technology has to go a long way in our country to meet the future challenges (Kalloo et al., 2000). Thus, it is pertinent to have an overview of the methods of the hybrid seed production technology. Various methods are as follows:

Hybrid Rice

People’s Republic of China announced the successful development and use of F1 rice hybrids in the late 1970s. The first hybrid rice combinations were put into commercial production in China in 1976. Since then commercial exploitation of hybrid rice attracted the attention of researchers around the world. It is accepted that about 20% yield advantage of hybrid rice would be usually required to meet the extra cost of seed production and the future rice demands of a growing world population. Realizing the prospects of hybrid rice, IRRI intensified research on this and organized an ‘International Symposium on Hybrid Rice’ on 6-10 October 1986 at the Hunan Hybrid Rice Research Centre, Changsha, China where Prof. Yuan Longping and his co-workers had made their names in development of hybrid rice. The proceedings were brought out in form of a book entitled ‘Hybrid Rice’ in 1988 by International Rice Research Institute, Philippines. This book documents the information exchanged, and presents for the first time, in English, much of the Chinese literature on hybrid rice.

Floral Biology and Crossing

Pearl millet spikelets bear 2 types of florets, one being bisexual and the other staminate. A singIe pistil with 2 feathery and 3  anthers is enclosed between the lemma and palea. The unisexual staminate florets are sessile and borne below the bisexual flowers. These have 3 anthers and lack the female organs. Pearl millet is a highly protogynous species and thus  highly cross pollinated.
 
The time of panicle exertion from boot leaf varies in inbreds and hybrids. Bhatnagar and Kumar (1960) observed that spike takes 6 days to emerge from the sheath with the maximum emergence on the fourth or fifth day. The stylar branches protrude first from the florets at the tip of the head and gradually proceed downwards. Most of the stylar branches on the earheads emerge by the third day. There exists a great variation in the time taken for the complete emergence of the styles in the hybrids than in the inbred lines (Tewari et al.,1971). Anthesis in pearl millet is completed in two phases. The first involves the bisexual florets while the second involves staminate florets. It has been generally observed that the anthers in the sessile male florets emerge 2-3 days after the anthers have emerged in the bisexual florets. Thus most heads continue to shed pollen for 4-6 days.The largest number of anthers emerged between 8 PM and 2 AM. Environmental factors like temperature and humidity have significant role in the anther emergence.

The information under this section is primarily based on Yordanov (1983). It is almost unanimously accepted that heterosis manifestation in tomato is in the form of the greater vigour, faster growth and development, greater earliness, and productivity, higher resistance to disease and adaptability unfavourable environmental conditions. The first step towards a large scale extension of hybrid tomato cultivars in the practice and proper organization of hybrid seed production took place in Bulgaria. After the second world war tomato heterosis breeding developed quickly in the Netherlands, England France, USA, Japan and other countries. In India, tomato hybrid cultivar on commercial scale was introduced in 1973 by Indo American Hybrid Seed Company.

Hybrid vigour in plants has long been noted, and the first suggestion that it be exploited in vegetables was by Hayes and Jones in 1916. F1 hybrid eggplants were used on commercial scale in Japan before 1925. Demonstration of the value of hybrids in corn in the early 1920’s gave impetus to a few exploratory studies in other crops. Methods of its application to large scale field production of hybrids in vegetable crops were first proposed in 1932 using the self incompatibility system in cabbage and in 1943 using the cytoplasmic genetic male sterility system in onion. Today hybrid varieties are common in several vegetable crops viz., sweet corn, onion, tomato, summer squash, ordinary cabbage, cucumber, watermelon, muskmelon, asparagus, sweet pepper, chilli pepper, spinach, broccoli, Chinese cabbage, eggplant, Brussels sprout, Chinese radish, red beet, celery, bottle gourd, bitter gourd, okra, etc. India figures prominently in commercial exploitation of heterosis in vegetable crops like cabbage, tomato, okra, watermelon, muskmelon, eggplant, bottle gourd, bitter gourd and cucumber.

Squashes and pumpkins are vegetable crops of the genus Cucurbita. They are grown in temperate, subtropical and tropical regions of the world. These crops are common elements in home gardening and subsistence agro-ecosystems in most countries and are produced on commercial scale in some countries. The economic botany, genetics and evolutionary history of Cucurbita has been reviewed by Whitaker and Davis (1962) and Whitaker (1974).

Many developing countries, for example India, China, Thailand, Brazil, Mexico, Egypt and South Africa, utilise the so-called modern biotechnology, based on genetic engineering and genomics. Agricultural biotechnology is the most widespread biotechnology in developing countries, but only a few of them are able to carry out all of the research and development activities leading to the commercialization of genetically modified seeds. These include basic research in molecular and cell biology and genetics, greenhouse and field trials according to  internationally agreed biosafety standards, risk assessment and management, respect for intellectual property rights relating to the transferred genes and to the creation of new crop varieties, production of genetically modified (GM) seeds by private corporations or working in cooperation with the public agricultural research sector, extension activities aiming at delivering the new seeds to the farmers and biovigilance in the fields of GM crops so as to detect any abnormalities or any hazards caused to the environment and to conventional crops (Sasson and Elliot, 2004).

The genetically engineered (GE) seeds developed using recombinant DNA technology often referred to as transgenics or genetically modified organism (GMOs) provide an usually adaptable, scale neutral technology for the farmers. Even small farmers can benefit from such seeds provided the seeds are made available at reasonable cost. While growing such seeds the existing crop management practices are usually sufficient. The transgenics or GMOs are also defined as those organisms with a gene or gene construct of interest that has been introduced by molecular or recombinant DNA techniques. These exclude organisms produced by conventional breeding as well as organism produced by rearrangement of genetic materials by physical methods or by chemical means. Thus, GMO’s carry trangene(s) which when integrated and expressed stably and properly, confer either a new trait to the organism which was hitherto not present (such as insect resistance), or enhance an already existing trait such as nutritional quality (Prasana 2001).

Ministry of Environment & Forests Notification

New Delhi, the 5th December, 1989

Rules for The Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Micro Organisms Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells
(To be notified under the EP Act, 1986)
G.S.R. 1037(E) : In exercise of the powers conferred by sections 6, 8 and 25 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (29 of 1986) and with a view to protecting the environment, nature and health, in connection with the application of gene technology and micro-organisms, the Central Government hereby makes the following rules, namely:-

Cotton is a major crop of India grown in about 9.0 million hectares.This is the largest cotton area in the world. Thus, India ranks Ist among cotton growing countries in the world in terms of area. However, average cotton yields in India have been 320 kg/ha as compared to world cotton yield average of 580 kg/ha. Thus, cotton production in India represents only about 13% of the total world production whereas India accounts for approximately 20% of the world’s total cotton area. Obviously, yield levels in India are low compared to world average. The low yield levels in India are partly due to heavy losses from insect pests, particularly cotton bollworm complex.

BE it enacted by Parliament in the Seventeenth Year of the Republic of India as follows:

Short Title, Extent and Commencement
    1.    (1) This Act may be called the Seeds Act, 1966.
        (2) It extends to the whole of India. 
        (3) It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by   notification in the Official Gazette, appoint, and different dates may be appointed for different provisions of this Act, and for different States or for different areas thereof.

Part I - Preliminary

    1.    Short title. – These rules may be called the Seeds Rules, 1968. 
    2.    Definitions. – In these rules, unless the context otherwise requires,- 
        (a) “Act” means the Seeds Act, 1966 (54 of 1966); 
        (b) “advertisement” means all representations other than those on the label, disseminated in any manner or by any means relating to seed for the purposes of the Act; 
        (c)  “certification sample” means a sample of seed drawn by a certification agency or by a duly authorised representative of a certification agency established under section 8 or recognized under section 18 of the Act; 
        (d) “certification tag” means a tag or label of certain design to be specified by the certification agency and shall constitute the certificate granted by the certification agency; 

S.O.867 (E) – In exercise of the powers conferred by sub-section (1) of section 3 of the Destructive Insects and Pests Act, 1914 (2 of 1914), and in suppression  of Plants, Fruits and Seeds (Regulation of import into India) Order 1984, except as respects things done or omitted to be done before such suppression, the Central Government hereby makes the following order for the purpose of prohibiting and regulating the import into India of agricultural articles mentioned herein, namely: -

Introduction

Indian Agriculture has made enormous strides in the past 50 years, raising foodgrains production from 50 million tonnes to over 200 million tonnes.  In the process, the country has progressed from a situation of food shortages and imports to one of surpluses and exports.  Having achieved food sufficiency, the aim now is to achieve food and nutritional security at the household level.

The increase in agricultural production, however, has brought in its wake, uneven development, across regions, crops, and also across different sections of farming community.  In the decade of the ‘nineties’, a marked slackening in the pace of growth has occurred, pointing to the need for infusing a new vitality in the agricultural sector.

THE SEEDS BILL, 2004
A
BILL
 to provide for regulating the quality of seeds for sale, import and  export and to facilitate production and supply of seeds of quality and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.

Intellectual Property Right, IPR is a general term covering patents, registered design, trademarks, copyrights, layout design of integrated circuits, trade secrets, geographical indicators and competitive practices in contractual license.

Chapter I: Preliminary

1. Short title, extent and commencement
 
    (1)    This Act may be called the Patents Act, 1970. 
    (2)    It extends to the whole of India. 
    (3)    It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint: 
PROVIDED that different dates may be appointed for different provisions of this Act, and any reference in any such provision to the commencement of this Act shall be construed as a reference to the coming into force of that provision.

BE it enacted by Parliament in the Fifty-sixth Year of the Republic of India as Follows :
 
    1.    (1) This Act may be called the Patents (Amendment) Act, 2005. 
        (2) Sub-clause (ii) of clause (a), and clause (b), of section 37, sections 41,42,47,59 to 63 (both inclusive) and 74 shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint; and the remaining provisions of this Act shall be deemed to have come into force on the 1st day of January, 2005.

Introduction

In order to provide for the establishment of an effective system for protection of plant varieties, the rights of farmers and plant breeders and to encourage the development of new varieties of plants it has been considered necessary to recognize and protect the rights of the farmers in respect of their contribution made at any time in conserving, improving and making available plant genetic resources for the development of the new plant varieties. Moreover to accelerate agricultural development, it is necessary to protect plant breeders’ rights to stimulate investment for research and development for the development of new plant varieties.

Chapter I
Preliminary 
1. Short Title and Commencement 
    (1)    These rules may be called the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Rules, 2003.   
    (2)    They shall come into force on the date on which the Act shall come into force.   

2. Definitions 
        In these rules, unless the context otherwise requires, -   
    (a)    “Act” means the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, 2001(53 of 2001);

Introduction

On 29 January 2000, the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity adopted a supplementary agreement to the Convention known as the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. The Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology. It establishes an advance informed agreement (AIA) procedure for ensuring that countries are provided with the information necessary to make informed decisions before agreeing to the import of such organisms into their territory. The Protocol contains reference to a precautionary approach and reaffirms the precaution language in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. The Protocol also establishes a Biosafety Clearing-House to facilitate the exchange of information on living modified organisms and to assist countries in the implementation of the Protocol.

For seed storage in the gene banks, the seed stored should have high quality which is greatly affected by seed handling during collection. The details on these issues have been given by Smith (1995).  In terms of seed storage characteristics seeds are of following 3 steps.

Green peach aphid/leaf curl aphid : Brachycaudus helichrysi : Aphididae

These are green aphids that suck the sap from growing buds. Leaf buds become weak and result in poor setting and premature fruit fall.

The pest has a worldwide distribution. In India it is seen in the hills of North India and in nilgiris.

It is a serious pest of peaches, plum, apricot, and almond. The aphids attack the tender portions like new buds, blossoms, petioles, tender fruits and leaves. When the new flushes are attacked, the leaves get curled and crinkled and fruit set is either reduced or  fruits fall off . The infestation starts with the commencement of bud swelling and continues until after flowering. The leaf curl may be confused with that due to the fungal leaf curl by Taphrina deformans.

This crop is gaining importance as a main ingredient in Indian diet due to its medicinal properties. Large areas are under its cultivation and the larger fruited varieties have become very popular. It is one of the prime constituents in ayurvedic preparations
Bark-eating caterpillars - Indarbela quadrinotata, I. tertraonis: Metarbelidae
The larvae of this species make zigzag galleries and feed on the bark under silken ribbon- shaped webs. They are stout and dirty brown in colour.
Fruit- borer : Deudorix Isocrates : Lycaenidae: The larvae of this beautiful butterfly cause considerable damage (up to 42%) to fruits.  They start feeding while the fruit is tender, and growing. During severe infestations, chemical control may be warranted. This can be done by spraying contact insecticides like malathion, or dichlorvos or  fenvalerate or other synthetic pyrethroids.

Apple codling moth: Cydia (Carpocapsa) pomonella: Tortricidae 

This is an international pest and is now seen in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. This is a fruit borer whose moth is silvery white with a dark band on the margin of the forewing and light brownish hind wings with a fringed margin. The moths hold their wings roof-like over the body while at rest.

Indian gypsy moth: Lymantria obfuscata: Lymantridae

Eggs are laid by the bulky adult female moth, which has only rudimentary wings and hence cannot fly.  Eggs are laid under the bark on the tree trunks or on fallen leaves. They feed on many shade trees and other trees also.  Feeding is gregarious and done during night. The trees are almost completely defoliated. Management involves spot application of contact insecticides at the beginning, when the larvae are small and before they disperse to the different leaves.

Pseudostem borer: Odoiporus longicollis: Curculionidae

Distribution : It is widely distributed in all banana growing areas and has got introduced into South India somewhere in the eighties and spread fast in the banana areas of Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Kerala and Karnataka.

Biology : Adults of the weevil are reddish brown to black and resemble the adults of the rhizome weevil in size and shape. They live for about four months. The snout is long with the characteristic geniculate antennae.

Ber fruit fly:  Carpomyia vesuviana :Tephritidae

Adult is a small fly with black spots on the thorax and dark spots on the wings. They have only one pair of wings typical of diptera. The attack by the insect causes rotting of fruits and fruit drop. The adult female lays eggs singly in cavities made on the fruit by the ovipositor.  One female can lay up to 22 eggs. Egg period lasts for 2-3 days and the emerging maggots feed inside the fruit for about 7-10 days. The fully grown maggot falls to the ground to pupate in soil.  Pupal period is around 5-30 days. There can be 2-3 generations /year.

Citrus butterfly: Papilio demoleus, P. polytes : Papilionidae

The pest is distributed all over the world and has a host range that includes citrus and other rutaceae plants like Aegle marmelos. Adult has the head and thorax black with a creamy-yellow coloration on the underside of the abdomen. Wings are dull black, orna-mented with yellow markings and a distinct red patch on the hind wing. The underside is orange and yellow coloured and can be seen when it flirts for honey collection or just before egg laying. The Antenna is black and clubbed.

Mealy bugs: Ferrisia virgata, Planococcous lilacinus, P. pacificus, Maconellicoccus hirsutus, Perisopneumon ferox: Pseudococcidae

The fruit is seen covered with a mealy coating due to colonies of small reddish-white mealy bugs. They also infest leaves, shoots and buds. Due to sucking of sap by nymphs and adult female mealy bugs, fruits remain small in size and become shrivelled. Large number of mealy bugs is seen in the tip of the petiole abd also on the grooves of fruits epicarp. The fruit also becomes blackish due to the development of sooty mould.

Stem-borer: Batocera rufomaculata, B. rubus, Olenecamptus bilobus:Cerambycidae

These are large dark brown adult beetles that lay eggs in loose bark.  Grubs bore into the trunk and make tunnels in branches and main trunks.  This causes drying and wilting of the branches. Adults of O. bilobus are pale whitish with long serrate antenna.
 
When bark is suspected to have the grubs, try mechanical removal of them. Paste the tree trunk with mud paste containing insecticides like chlorpyriphos or carbaryl. In endemic areas, spray the bark with Carbaryl 4gm /l, Malathion one ml/l, or Chlorpyriphos 2.5ml/l

Grapevine stem girdler:  Sthenias grisator : Cerambycidae

This is a pest that can also survive on mango, rose, cocoa, coffee, almond, and mulberry. The ovipositing adult causes wilting of branches and then the entire vine. Adults are medium-sized, grey coloured beetles with a white spot at the center of each elytron. They are active at night.

Eggs are deposited in clusters of 2-4, underneath loose bark of girdled branches. Eggs are oval and enveloped in a white parchment like covering. Adults emerge out and start ovipositing individual eggs at a point in the vine in a circular fashion so that the vine dries up above this point. Egg period takes about 8 days. The grub has dark brown head and mouth has a pair of prominent mandibles, each with two teeth. The grub continues its life as a semi saprophyte and pupates in the same tunnel. A single generation can occupy one year.

Spiralling whitefly : Aleurodicus dispersus : Aleyrodidae

A. dispersus originated from the tropical countries in Central and South America. More recently, it has been reported from Asia and Africa. In India, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu faces its problem. A. dispersus is a highly polyphagous species. Its wide host range includes many vegetable, ornamental and fruit crops, as well as numerous trees and shrubs, including Capsicum, Citrus, Cocos nucifera (coconut), Euphorbia pulcherrima (poinsettia), Glycine max (soybean), Hibiscus, Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato), Mangifera indica (mango), Musa (banana), Persea americana (avocado), Prunus spp., Psidium guajava (guava)and  Solanum melongena (brinjal) etc.

Shoot and fruit borer : Diaphania (Margaronia) caesalis :  Pyraustidae

The shoot-and fruit-borer D.caesalis is a major pest of jackfruit in India. The larvae are reddish brown with pale brown head and thin hairs from black warts. The caterpillars bore into the shoots, buds and fruits.  Affected shoots wilt or dry up and the fruits rot and drop. The adult is brown with grey elliptical patterns on the wings.

Fruit borers : Criptophlebia illepida, Rapala varuna, Deudorix epijarbas, D. Isocrates : Lycaenidae

Of the four species, C.illepida is more damaging to litchi fruits. The larvae bore into developing fruits and seeds, filling the bore-holes with excreta and the infested fruits start rotting.

Fruit –fly : Bactrocera dorsalis :Tephritidae

The process of egg laying and ovipunctures makes the fruits deformed. Feeding of maggots in the pulp induces rotting and fruit drop.

Bark-eating caterpillar : Indarbela quadrinotata

Severe damage on loquat due to I. quadrinotata was observed during October- November in Uttar Pradesh. There are some cultivars like  Thames Pride which are less susceptible.

Mango Fruit fly : Bactrocera dorsalis : Tephritidae

This is probably the most economically important pest of mango. It can attack many crops like mango, guava, peach, apricot, cherry, pear, ber, citrus, banana, papaya, avocado, passion fruit, coffee, melons, jack fruit and strawberry. There are also related species that may cross infect. The adults are light brown small flies with a single pair of membranous transparent wings. The other pair is modified into halteres. Eggs are thrust into the skin of the mangoes when they are semi ripe. A drop of resin comes out of the ovipunctures and can be seen as a black mark. While purchasing mango, this can be used as an indication of the presence of the fruit fly eggs.

Olive-scale: Metacernema japonica: Black scale: Saissetia oleae: Coccidae

Olive scales are tiny pale-greyish insects which settle on branches, leaves and fruits and are active during April-November. S. oleae are round greenish brown scales. Nymphs and adults of both the species suck the sap from the tender shoots, and leaf petioles. Sooty-mould appears on leaves and branches of infested plants as a consequence of honeydew secre-tion. Shoots get dried up and fruits remain undersized.

Fruit flies : Bactrocera cucurbitae,Toxotrypana curvicauda : Tephritidae

The fruit flies lay eggs on maturing fruits. The emerging maggots feed in the fruit pulp, causing rotting of the fruits.

AK grasshopper: Poekilocerus pictus: Acrididae

Nymphs and adults of the AK grass hopper feed on papaya leaves and tender bark.  Maximum damage is done during July-August in North India.
 
Aphids : Aphis gossypii, Myzus persicae: Aphididae

Nymphs and adult aphids suck sap from leaves. They are more important as a vector of papaya mosaic virus disease. The affected trees die in an year or two.

Green peach aphid/peach leaf curl aphid : Brachycaudus helichrysi Aphididae

These are green aphids that suck the sap from growing buds. Leaf buds become weak and result in poor setting and premature fruit fall.
 
Blossom thrips : Thrips rhopalantennalis, T. flavus, T. florum, Haplothrips tenuipennis, Frankliniella dampfi : Thripidae

These are tiny, yellow, pale-brown and black slender insects seen within the flowers and flower buds. Adults and nymphs lacerate floral parts and suck sap resulting in brown spots. Infested flowers give sickly and faded look. Lesions cause flower fall, inferior fruits and loss in yield. Attack on tender leaves causes necrotic silvering, curling, deformation and withering.

Mealy bug: Dysmicoccus brevipus: Pseudococcidae

Mealy bugs are major pests of pineapple in India. They can attack roots and aerial parts. Colonies of reddish –white mealy bugs infest roots, crown, and fruits and suck sap. The leaves change in colour from green to red or pink and the margins reflect inwards and leaf tip starts drying. Severely infested plants become stunted and bear only small fruits. The attacked plants should be drenched with an insecticide solution of contact insecticides like Quinalphos or Dichlorvos or Chlorpyriphos@ 0.05% concentration, in between the fronds and allowed to drip down to reach the roots. Addition of liquid soap @4 ml per litre or 4 g of soap powder per litre is a must to get the best results.

Plum weevil : Amblyrrhinus poricollis, Myllocerus laetivirens, M. sabulosus, M. undecimpustulatus : Curculionidae

Adult beetles feed on the epidermis of fresh and tender leaves leaving behind only the network of veins and affected leaves dry up and fall. They cause serious damage in young plantations.

Defoliating beetles
 
Adoretus duvauceli, A. versutus, Anomala dimidiata, A. flavipes, A. lineatopennis, A. rufiventris, Holotrichia longipennis, Hilyotrogus holosericeous, Lachnosterna coriacea, L. crinicollis, L. longipennis, Mimela passerine, M. pectoralis.

Fruit borer (Anar butterfly): Deudorix(Virachola) isocrates; D. epijarbas: :Lycaenidae

This is a pest distributed all over India and adjoining countries .It has a host range covering apple, gooseberry ber, citrus, guava, litchi, loquat, peach, mulberry, pear, sapota and  tamarind. Adult is a beautiful glossy bluish to brownish violet butterfly with an orange patch on forewings and a tail in the hind wing.