eChapters

Metabolism - sum total of all chemical reactions in living cells

Catabolic reactions - degrade macromolecules and other molecules to release energy

Anabolic reactions - used to synthesize macromolecules for cell growth, repair, and reproduction

Can divide metabolism into 4 groups: carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids, nucleotides.

INTRODUCTION

The metabolism of carbohydrates is vital for plant growth and development, and to the yield of major plant products such as starch and sucrose. Starch, sucrose and fructose are the three important carbohydrates which are utilized in most of the higher plants. The majority of sucrose that is synthesized in higher plants during photosynthesis is exported to non-photosynthetic cells (ap Rees, 1992). Starch serves as an important storage for carbohydrate residues. The degradation (breakdown) of starch ensures retaining of important life processes in plants when there is carbon shortage, for instance, during night period in leaves or in resting organs such as potato tubers.

6.1 Metabolism
Dietary components like carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins are continuously broken down and synthesized through various chemical reactions (exergonic or endergonic) that are concerned with energy. These processes not only break them down but also interconvert them for their synthesis. Dietary components, when utilized, are known as nutrients the body. The number of reactions occurring in living cells maintains the body cells and fluid’s homeostasis and dynamic status. To keep the dynamic state of a cell, many reactions are going on to synthesize or break down the different types and sizes of molecules. The total of these reactions is known as metabolism.
The metabolism may be anabolic or catabolic. Further, it may be aerobic or anaerobic, depending on oxygen availability. These four terms are explained below:
I. Aerobic and Anaerobic Metabolism
• Aerobic metabolism-- In aerobic metabolism, the carbohydrates (substrate) in the presence of oxygen are metabolized to release energy, carbon dioxide, and water. The released energy is converted to ATP by two processes in the mitochondria (the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation). In oxidation, the electrons released from a glucose molecule are transferred to reduced NAD+ and FAD. The oxygen (electron acceptor) is reduced to water. Water formation [from H2(g) and O2(g)] is an exothermic reaction. The energy released from the chemical bond of glucose is captured as ATP, and heat is released.

Introduction
Metabolism encompasses a series of cellular reactions essential for sustaining life in living organisms. These reactions are part of interconnected pathways within cells, ultimately providing the necessary energy for cellular functions. The importance and evolutionary benefits of these pathways are evident as they are conserved across animals, plants, fungi, and bacteria. In eukaryotes, metabolic pathways operate within the cytosol and
mitochondria, with glucose and fatty acids being the primary sources of cellular energy in animals. Metabolism is organized into distinct pathways to optimize energy capture or minimize energy expenditure. It can be divided into two main processes: anabolism, which involves the synthesis of complex macromolecules, and catabolism, which involves their degradation.
Carbohydrates are the major source of energy in the animal’s diet. Absorbed glucose could be utilized by the animal for several functions. The first priority is the formation of glycogen in the liver, which is stored in muscle and hepatic tissue. However, the body stores very little as glycogen (a starch-like compound), and glycogen could be rapidly hydrolyzed back to glucose through a process called glycogenolysis. This helps in maintaining blood
glucose at a narrow range in normal healthy animals. The second priority is oxidation to form energy (a major function) and is described in the next sections. Since glycogen storage is limited, excess glucose is converted to fat and is stored in adipose tissue. This is accomplished by the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate through a process called glycolysis, which is then available for fat synthesis. The catabolism of glucose occurs in two metabolic pathways: glycolysis and the tricarboxylic acid (TCA; also called citric acid or Kreb’s) cycle.
Glycolysis: Enzymes for glycolysis are located in the cytosol of the cell, and glycolysis occurs in this part of the cell. Glycolysis is the breakdown of 6 C glucose into two 3 C end product pyruvates in aerobic metabolism and lactic acid in anaerobic metabolism. It is a catabolic pathway involving oxidation and yields ATP and NADH (reduced NAD) energy. Glycolysis is the pathway by which other sugars (e.g., fructose, galactose) are catabolized by converting them to intermediates of glycolysis. Fructose can be converted to fructose-6- phosphate by hexokinase. Galactose can enter glycolysis by being converted to galactose- 1-phosphate followed by conversion (ultimately) to glucose-1-phosphate and subsequently to glucose-6-phosphate (G6P), which is a glycolysis intermediate.

Introduction to Metabolism Metabolism is the sum of all biochemical reactions (physical and chemical processes) occurring within the body to sustain life. In total, it encompasses all the processes converting the energy from nutrients into usable forms, thereby facilitating the synthesis of biomolecules necessary for sustaining life. This process occurring in all living organisms ensures that a continuous supply of energy and precursors is maintained to perform cellular functions, such as growth, reproduction, maintenance and response to environmental stimuli. Therefore, studying the body’s metabolism provides insights into the physiology, mechanism of disease occurrence and potential therapeutic interventions. Specifically, metabolism is a highly regulated process involving a set of biochemical reactions that can be broadly grouped into: a) Catabolism involves the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler components, releasing energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Catabolic reactions assist in the extraction

Metabolomic databases provide essential information for identifying metabolites, interpreting experimental results, analyzing pathways, and understanding biochemical relationships. This chapter introduces major databases used in metabolomics and explains their roles in modern biological research. Resources such as KEGG, BRENDA, HMDB, MetaboLights, METLIN, and LIPID MAPS provide information on metabolites, enzymes, pathways, structures, spectra, diseases, and experimental datasets. The chapter discusses their applications in metabolite identification, pathway analysis, biomarker discovery, systems biology, and translational research. It also considers challenges including data volume, database completeness, continuous updating, standardization, and integration with other omics resources.

Metabolomic research depends on analytical technologies capable of detecting and characterizing large numbers of chemically diverse metabolites. This chapter introduces the principal analytical platforms used for metabolite analysis, with emphasis on mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry, capillary electrophoresis–mass spectrometry, and NMR are examined in relation to metabolite separation, identification, and quantification. The chapter also considers sample preparation, analytical workflows, advantages and limitations of different platforms, and complementary approaches for achieving broader metabolome coverage. These techniques provide the analytical foundation for metabolic profiling, biomarker discovery, pathway analysis, and systems-level biological investigations.

Abstract

Dietary phytochemicals and herbal medicines are under intensive investigation for their potential as chemopreventive agents against various diseases due to the wide variety of microbial and plant functionally relevant secondary metabolites. The chemical diversity of phytochemicals, as well as phytochemicals and complex metabolic interactions between the biological systems may exceed the capacity of the platforms of traditional analysis, and therefore pose major challenges in the study of chemopreventive phytochemical compounds.

Milk, commonly referred to as the “ideal food,” is an essential source of nutrition for human consumption. Because of the growing human population and the rising demand for milk and milk products, there is more interest in and concern about the quality and safety of dairy products. Milk comprises chemical substances with various functions in the human body, such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and trace elements (vitamins, minerals, etc.) (Guetouache et al., 2014).

Every aspect of the living organism is the sum total result of the metabolism carried out within its cells and in other organisms. Metabolism is the sum total of the chemical reactions occurring in the cell or organism. Metabolism is of two kinds:

1. Anabolism- It is also known as constructive metabolism as it involves synthesis of complex substances from the simpler ones, which are required for growth, maintenance and storage in the organism. Example: Formation of starch from glucose.
2. Catabolism- It is also known as destructive metabolism as it involves breaking of the complex substances into simpler ones, leading to release of the energy required for performing various activities of living beings. Example: Respiration.

Metabolite is the end product or the intermediate product of a biological pathway. Metabolite can be classified into two types mainly:

1. Introduction

Plants offer a rich source of active compounds that have been exploited as scents, flavourings, pigments, pesticides, and medicinal compounds for thousands of years. Plants are thought to utilise these metabolites as a primary strategy for adapting to and surviving in a variety of ecological niches and environmental conditions, as well as to combat biotic intrusions in their environment (Weng, 2014). The increased interest in phytomedicine and medicinal supplements, as well as the increased regulatory obligations for their safety and reputable contents of active compounds, has prompted the development of methodologies for the quality control of multi - component concretes found in plant-derived nutraceuticals. Metabolite diversity in plants is thought to have evolved over time to help plants survive in harsh environments, and it is continually changing. 

INTRODUCTION

Digital resources are growing at an exponential rate and uncountable stacks of resources are available on the web. Semantic based search engines and meta-search engines stimulate resource discovery on digital collections1. During recent years an increasing quantity and variety of digital material has been created or held by libraries, and consequently many standards have been developed to encode different catego-ries of metadata for specific object types. Metadata today is an essential phenomenon for electronic cataloguing, federated searching, and open URLs. Selecting metadata is perceived to be essential for the librarians in pursuing long-term management and preservation of digital objects in digital library. Metadata is also important for digital archivists, database developers, resource authors, web-page designers, aggregators, system designers, as well as seekers of electronic information. In fact, metadata is inevitable for digital resource management and for discovering information from a large distributed environment. Metadata is expected to improve matching by standardizing the structure2 and content of indexing or cataloguing information. The Metadata Encoding and Transmission Standards (METS) were developed to deal with diverse metadata is-sues. It is an XML Schema designed as an overall framework3 within which all the metadata associ-ated with a single digital object can be stored or referred to. It enables effective management of digital objects within the repository; acts as a standard for transferring metadata within repositor-ies, facilitates access and navigation by the researcher, and links the digital object and its meta-data inextricably together.

Summary

Metagenomics is a rapidly developing field of research that enables the study of microbes that have not been cultured or cannot be cultured easily. It has greatly advanced the understanding of ecology and diversity of natural microbial communities and has led to the discovery of many new genes and geneproducts. The various aspects of metagenomics – history, techniques for identification, different approaches of data analysis, comparative and functional genomics, applications in the areas of medicine, agriculture, biotechnology, ecology, bioprospecting, bioremediation, future advances and challenges and issues related to intellectual property, have been discussed.

Key Points

• It is frequently reported that metal, non-metal, and metalloid components cause toxicity in farm animals.

• The type of element causing toxicity affects both the treatment and the clinical indications of toxicity.

• The best course of action for managing toxicity is to treat symptoms f irst, then, if the causal toxin is known, use targeted antidotes.

Introduction

Animal diets contain a variety of environmental components, including metals and non-metals. Certain substances are necessary for the animal and only become poisonous when consumed in excess, while others simply endanger the animal's health. However, a number of variables, including the absorbed dose, the exposure route, the period of exposure (acute versus chronic), and others, affect how toxic the substance is, and these variables must be taken into account when diagnosing, treating, and managing clinical cases. Given the multitude of factors affecting these metals' toxicity. An attempt is made in this chapter to present a streamlined synopsis of the toxicity of metals, non-metals, and metalloid elements that are frequently encountered.

5.1 Introduction
A common method for combining metals in a wide range of applications is welding. Welding takes place in a variety of places, including factories and workshops, as well as outside on rural farms and construction sites. Basic welding techniques can be easily learnt, and the processes involved are quite straightforward to understand. The molecular joining of metals is called welding. When two or more pieces of metal are joined together uniformly such that the joint’s strength is greater than the combined strength of the individual components is known as a weld.
5.1.1 Key Terminologies of Welding
Four materials and other two elements are needed for welding, which are as listed below.
i. Metals
ii. Heat source/ flame
iii. Filler/ flux material
iv. Electrode
v. Air shield
vi. Coatings
To create a single piece of metal, the metals are heated to their melting point while being kept out of the air. A filler metal is then added to the heated area. It can be done under pressure or without pressure. In some cases, filler material need not be used. Air is used as a shield to cover the welding zone from oxidation.
5.1.1.1 Metals
Metals are the workpieces, which are to be joined. These metals may be similar or dissimilar. There are many situations wherein two or more workpieces are to be joined. Consider internal combustion engine in which valve timing gears are fixed over cam shaft. The fixing of the cam over the cam shaft is carried out by welding. Here, the workpieces are the cam and the cam shaft

Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) may detect and identify chemical and biological species ultrasensitively. Through localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) effects, metal nanostructures boost analyte Raman signals. This chapter covers current advances and essential principles in metal nanostructures for SERS chemical detection. It discusses SERS fundamentals and enhancing processes, such as metal nanostructure size, shape, and composition. Top-down and bottom-up processes including lithography, chemical synthesis, and self-assembly are used to create repeatable and controllable metal nanostructures. The complex interactions between light, metal nanostructures, and analyte molecules are best understood by combining theoretical modeling and experimental observations. 

4.1. Introduction

Packaging of materials protects, surrounds, and contains food products. It is necessary from processing and manufacturing stage till the final consumption through storage and handling. In 1804, Nicolas Appert, a French confectioner, discovered a method of “conserving all kinds of food substances in containers.” In 1810, the Ministry of the Interior’s Bureau of Arts and Manufactures paid Appert an ex-gratia payment of 12,000 francs on the condition that he publish the details of his process. Appert avoided the use of tinplate in his study. However, in the early nineteenth century (1810), Phillipe de Girard, a French inventor, filed a patent referring to the replacement of glass jars and bottles with tin cases. The official confirmation in the New York Evening Post on July 18, 1822 by Daggett and Kensett is thought to be America’s first offering of preserved provisions in tin cans (Bishop, 1978). Table 1 shows the evolution of metal packaging materials at various stages.

Insects development

Once an insect hatches from the egg it is usually able to survive on its own, but it is small, wingless, and sexually immature. Its primary role in life is to eat and grow. If it survives, it will periodically outgrow and replace its exoskeleton (a process known as molting). In many species, there are other physical changes that also occur as the insect gets older (growth of wings and development of external genitalia, for example). Collectively, all changes that involve growth, molting, and maturation are known as morphogenesis.

Metamorphosis

• Metamorphosis actually means change in form Metamorphosis is derived from Greek word ‘Meta’ = Change, ‘morph’ = form or structure.

• The changes in the development from egg to adult, collectively called Metamorphosis (life cycle).

• Post-embryonic changes in form are collectively called as metamorphosis.

• Metamorphosis refers to the way that insects develop, grow, and change form. Metamorphosis include three developmental processes namely growth, differentiation and reproduction which takes place in larval, pupal and adult stages, respectively.

• Majority of insects pass through profound metamorphosis. The growth of an immature insect is accompanied by a series of molts or ecdysis, in which the cuticle is shed off and renewed. The number of molts varies in most insects from 4-8. However some undergo as many as 20 or more molts. A few insects like Bristle tail silver fish (apterygota) may continue molting even after reaching the adult stage. But most of the insects neither molt nor increase in size once then adult stage is reached. The intervals between the ecdysis are called Stadia. The term instar is applied to form of an insect during stadium. In numbering the instar, the form assumed by the insect between hatching from the egg and the first post embryonic molt is termed “First Instar”.

7.1 Introduction
The preceding chapters have detailed the myriad ways in which meteorological data is collected, from direct in situ observations to various ground-based and space-borne remote sensing platforms. We have also explored the crucial aspects of data formatting, storage, and retrieval, recognizing the immense volume and diversity of atmospheric information. However, the journey from raw measurement to actionable insight is not complete without a critical intermediate step: data quality control (QC) and preprocessing. No observational system, regardless of its sophistication, is entirely free from errors, biases, or inconsistencies. Sensors can drift, communication links can suffer interference, environmental factors can contaminate readings, and automated systems can malfunction. Consequently, raw meteorological data often contains spurious values, missing records, or systematic biases that, if left unaddressed, can severely compromise the accuracy of weather forecasts, the reliability of climate analyses, and the validity of scientific research.
This chapter will delve into the essential processes of quality control, which involves rigorously identifying, flagging, and, where appropriate, correcting or removing erroneous data points. We will explore various automated and manual techniques employed to ensure the integrity and reliability of meteorological observations. Furthermore, we will examine preprocessing steps, which prepare the quality-controlled data for its intended use, including tasks such as unit conversions, interpolation to common grids, and handling of missing values. By understanding the meticulous procedures involved in data
quality control and preprocessing, we gain a profound appreciation for how raw atmospheric signals are transformed into the trustworthy information that underpins all of modern meteorology.

Meteorology is not merely the study of weather patterns; it is a critical science that intersects agriculture and allied sectors in numerous ways. In a world where food security is intimately tied to climatic variability, understanding the basic principles of meteorology is essential for both traditional farming practices and modern integrated food production systems. This chapter explores the foundational concepts of weather and climate, examines the atmospheric dynamics that directly impact agricultural systems, and contrasts historical meteorological practices with modern forecasting approaches. By delving into these topics, we can better appreciate how the environment influences agricultural productivity and how innovative meteorological tools can improve decision-making in the food production chain. Weather describes the state of the atmosphere at a specific time and place. It is the sum of short-term atmospheric conditions such as temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind, and visibility. In contrast, climate refers to the long-term average of weather patterns over a period of decades or more. Understanding this distinction is crucial for agriculture, as farmers and allied sector professionals must respond to immediate weather events (such as sudden frost or heavy rainfall) while also adapting to long-term climatic trends (like gradual temperature increases or shifting precipitation patterns).

Meteorological hazards are severe and extreme weather and climate events that occur in all parts of the world, although some regions are more vulnerable to certain hazards than others. Meteorological hazards include cyclones, droughts, floods, hurricanes, hailstorms, heat waves and tornadoes. The hazard is distinguished from an extreme event and a disaster. An extreme event is simply an unusual event; it does not necessarily cause harm. A disaster is an event that does cause harm in significant amounts. Meteorological hazards are often called as natural hazards. The natural hazards become natural disasters when people’s lives and livelihoods are destroyed.

Hydrological hazards are the result of either excess or a severe lack of water, i.e., flood or drought. Hydrometeorological hazard is a process or phenomenon of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic nature that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage. Human and material losses caused by natural disasters are a major obstacle to sustainable development. By issuing accurate forecasts and warnings in a form that is readily understood and by educating people about how to prepare against such hazards, before they become disasters, lives and property can be protected.

According to “Artha-sastra”, first book on Governance, Agriculture, cattle breeding and trade, world?s first meteorological Instrument, a “Rain Gauge”, apparently a circular vessel with 20 fingers equivalent width and 8 fingers equivalent depth were installed by Kautilya (Chanakya) during 350-281BC throughout the Mauryan empire (Rainfall measurement:: 1 adhaka = 12mm, I drona = 40 to 50 mm). He is the first person to identify country?s economy depends on Rainfall. Good yield of rain-fed crop requires rainfall of 16 dronas was essential and 4 dronas rainfall is sufficient, also identified rainy season July to December wherein 2/3 annual rainfall receives during Mid-August to October end, now as per IMD norms Southwest monsoon season. He also identified his empire consists of FOUR CLIMATIC zones Tundra/Tropical Rain forest/Semiarid and Arid zones. With the modern seafarers, Columbus (1451-1506) Americus Vespucius (1454-1512) Italian Explorers, James Cook (1728-1779), British Explorer, Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1529), Vasco-de-gama (14601524) Portuguese Explorer and other Navigators of 15th to 18th Century faced severe cyclonic storm and rough weather over high sea felt the need of Meteorological and Navigational equipments. Inventions of modern day instruments started. For Navigators, Quadrant, Mariners Campus (dry), Sand glasses for time measurement (800-900AD) and accurate mechanical Watch (1759) were invented. From the term “NAVAGATHI”, modern term of “NAVIGATION” born. With the introduction of Hot air balloon flight in 18th Century, Air flights (after 1903) our knowledge of weather of upper levels of the atmosphere – knowledge of heights of standard pressure altitudes, Upper Air Temperature, Humidity, Wind direction and speed upto Troposphere. Radio-sonde ascents were commenced in 1936. Radars and Satellite images further increased knowledge about weather and assisting for the preparation of weather inferences useful for Seafarers, flight operators and General Public, Agriculturists, Live-stock managements, national level planners, trade and economists.

2.1. Rainfall

Rainfall is one of the prime natural resource that decide the economy of a country. Inadequate and improper distribution of rainfall during cropping period will have serious threat to crop production resulted in food insecurity of growing population. So each and every action must be focused to conserve every drop of rainfall in an effective way and the conserved rainfall should be utilized in an efficient manner for crop production.

Atmosphere serves as the medium through which pollutants are transported and dispersed. While being transported, the pollutants undergo chemical reactions, which may be lethal or scavenged by chemical or physical process/method. But it all exclusively depends upon the meteorological conditions (Lee et .al, 1994). Historic air pollution episodes reveal that atmospheric conditions influence the pollutant concentrations as well as their toxicity (Goldsmith & Friberg, 1976; Wichmann et.al, 1989 and Pope et.al, 1992). However, the location, duration of release, height as well as the pollutant concentrations are also important, which effect the secondary pollutant transformation under the influence of meteorological conditions, but the atmospheric behavior is independent of their sources (Holzworth, 1974).

Meteorology is defined as the branch of science concerned with the processes and phenomena of the atmosphere. It is also defined as the climate and weather of a region. The word meteorology is derived from two Greek words: Meteor and logus. Meteor means event occurring above the earth surface and logus means to study. Meteorology is science deals with the physics, chemistry and dynamics of atmosphere and also their direct and indirect effects upon the earth surface, oceans and thereby life in general.

Climatology: Climatology is scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time. Different regions of the world have different characteristic climates which determine the crops of any region. Climatology is derived from Greek word ‘klima’ – place/zone or slope of the earth and logs is study. It discovers, describes and interprets the climate on the basis of causes and long term effects on variation in regional and global climate. Climatology is the science which studies average condition of weather or the state behavior of the atmosphere over a place or region for a long period of time.

Agrometeorology: Agrometeorology is the study of weather and use of weather and climate information to enhance crop production. Agrometeorology is defined as the branch of meteorology that deals with relationship between weather and climate on crop, livestock production and soil management.

Introduction

There is growing worldwide interest in reducing methane emissions from domestic ruminants. Methane is a potent greenhouse gas and its release into the atmosphere is directly linked with animal agriculture, particularly ruminant production. Methane emitted from ruminant livestock is regarded as a loss of feed energy and also a contributor to global warming. Methane is synthesized in the rumen as one of the hydrogen sink products that are unavoidable for efficient succession of anaerobic microbial fermentation. Various attempts have been made to reduce methane emission, mainly through rumen microbial manipulation, by the use of agents including chemicals, antibiotics and natural products such as oils, fatty acids and plant extracts. A newer approach is the development of vaccines against methanogenic bacteria. While ionophore antibiotics have been widely used due to their efficacy and affordable prices, the use of alternative natural materials is becoming more attractive due to health concerns regarding antibiotics. An important feature of a natural material that constitutes a possible alternative methane inhibitor is that the material does not reduce feed intake or digestibility but does enhance propionate that is the major hydrogen sink alternative to methane. Since methane contains energy, its emission during rumen fermentation is considered to be a loss of feed energy that is equivalent to 2-12% of the gross energy of animal feed (Johnson and Johnson, 1995). Some implications of these approaches, as well as an introduction to antibiotic-alternative natural materials and novel approaches, are provided.

Abstract

Microorganisms that produce methane as their metabolic end product are known as methanogens. Methanogens are prokaryotic, unicellular, obligate anaerobes having fastidious growth requirements making them difficult to isolate and preserve. They catalyse the terminal step in anaerobic breakdown of organic substances. Even though methanogenic archaea or methanogens show very limited metabolic diversity, they are one of the most phylogenetically and ecologically diverse group of Archaea. Methanogenic community varies greatly with respect to temperature. Methanogens have been reported from permanently frozen habitats like permafrost to hyperthermophilic environments such as hydrothermal vents. However, the metabolic and phylogenetic diversity of methanogens in these habitats vary greatly. Methanogens are the biocatalysts, having the ability to provide a solution to help solve energy crisis by producing methane as storable energy carrier. Methane being a flammable gas, can act as a clean and renewable source of energy. The biogenic methane gas thus produced may serve as an efficient alternative for fossil fuels in the future.

Poor quality roughages includes the wheat straw, commonly fed to ruminants but unable to provide any DCP. Urea ammoniation method, not only improves the nutritive value of straw in terms of DCP and TDN, but it also improves the dry matter intake of animal by improving its palatability. In this method of urea ammoniation, one quintal of wheat straw is treated with 4 kg fertilizer grade urea (4%) by dissolving in 40 litre of water (moisture 40%). The dissolved urea is sprayed over several layers of wheat straw and mixed properly and then kept under airtight condition by covering it with polythene sheet for a period of 4 weeks. With the presence of enzyme urease the urea get broken down in to ammonia and carbon di oxide. This ammonia on one hand improves the nitrogen content of the straw and on another hand alkalinity (by ammonia and by ammonium hydroxide) reacts on the lingo-cellulosic bonds to loosen their strength. So by increasing the nitrogen content of the straw it increase the nutritive value of the straw in terms of increasing the DCP value of the straw and on another hand by reducing the bonds of lingo-cellulose it increase the digestibility of crude fiber and hence it also increase the energy (TDN) content of the straw.

Bacterial biofertilizers are supplied as carrier based inoculants. Peat or lignite is used as carrier material. Carrier based bacterial inoculants are applied by the following methods.

1. Seed treatment or seed inoculation.
2. Seedling root dip and
3. Main field application

Seed Treatment

One packet of the inoculant (200 g) 7is mixed with 200 ml of rice kanji to make a slurry. The seeds required for an acre are mixed in the slurry so as to have a uniform coating of the inoculant over the seeds and then shade dried for 30 minutes. The shade dried seeds should be sown within 24 hours. One packet of the inoculant (200 g) is sufficient to treat 10 kg of seeds.

Aim

Study about method of apposing muscle, fascia, skin over amputed stump.

Indication

Proper healing of amputed stump, avoiding infections.

Description

Limb is amputed generally through diaphysis or by disarticulation method. Whatever is the amputation,the surgeon should always keep as much soft tissue as possible to cover the bone extrimities. It is difficult to achieve in large animal, when amputation is immediately below carpus or tarsus.

The amount of feed or nutrient intake by an animal which is not excreted in the faeces is considered to be digested by the animals. The depiction of digested feed/nutrient as percentage of intake is known as digestibility coefficient. However, this does not represent the true value of digestibility of a feed or nutrient because during the period of recording some part of digested material is returned to the digestive tract after absorption in the body and excreted in the faeces. In addition to this some secretions of the digestive system and debris of epithelial cells are also eliminated in the faeces. These errors are quite large and highly variable for the nitrogenous constituents and minerals in the feeds. Due to these factors the determined digestibility coefficient is known as apparent digestibility coefficient. For the determination of digestion coefficient, only daily intake of feed or nutrients and faecal void values are recorded.

The availability of nitrogenous nutrients and minerals is more accurately determined by their retention (balance) in the body. Therefore, for the determination of the retention of nitrogen and minerals,metabolism trials are conducted. The routes of elimination of these constituents from the body are faeces, urine, expired air, skin secretions and milk (in case of lactating mammalian species). In a conventional balance study the loss of nutrient (s) through skin, being quantitatively little, is ignored. However, in case of some very specific study, collection of skin secretions and materials like shed hair and scurf are collected. For the collection of skin secretion (sweat) a special absorbant suit is used. In all routine balance studies, on male animals quantity of intake and void in faeces and urine are only taken into account.

Purpose:- To know the method of fitting the immobilised fractured hind limb in Thomas splint.

Description

The fractured site is immobilised properly covering the area joint below and joint above from the fractured site.

The immobilised limb is kept within the prepared Thomas splint.

The immobilised limb is kept straight and come close with the front extension bamboo of the Thomas splint.

The foot is fixed to the distal end of the Thomas splint with bandage roll.

In the first attempt the immobilised limb is secured with the front bamboo splint with bandage roll at several places to avoid posterior movement of the immobilised limb.

At the time of fixing the immobilised limb with anterior extension bamboo of Thomas splint, the limb is fixed with the netting of Thomas splint to avoid medial movement of immobilised limb.

Finally the immobilised limb is covered with bandage roll wrapping around both the anterior and posterior extension bamboo of the Thomas splint to avoid outer movement of the immobilised limb.

The method of immobilisation of the hind limb with Thomas splint has been shown in the figure.

Aim: To secure the foot on the distal end of Thomas splint.

Procedure

1. Foot is placed upon the distal end of Thomas splint.
2. The foot of the animal is wrapped V’- two round with bandage cloth.(Fig.1)
3. 2^nd round of bandage cloth is wrapped around the distal end of Thomas splint.(Fig.2)
4. In 3^rd attempt, the bandage roll is taken from the ground level of the foot & including the distal end of foot.(Fig.3)
5. The bandage roll is taken through the gap between anterior end of Thomas splint.(Fig.3)
6. In 4th attempt, the bandage roll is taken from the volar or plantar aspect of the limb and passed upon the ground level of foot as well as the distal end of Thomas splint.(Fig.4)
7. Final 2 rounds of bandage cloth is wrapped through entire surface of foot.

Reference: Tyagi R.P.S. and Singh J, (2013), Ruminant Surgery, CBS Publishers, New Delhi, pp-353,354

In the words of Leonardo the vinci, “water is the driver of life”. It is said to be the liquid of life or elixir of life. Water availability is essential to consider as commercial orchards must have reliability of supply and cannot produce optimum yields without irrigation. Water management is one of the largest and most important inputs into an orchard. The single environmental component which determines the type of fruit plants to be selected for a specific ecological situation is the moisture status of the region. Different fruit plants preferring diverse moisture status have wide peculiarity in their anatomical and morphological structures as well as various modifications in their water absorbing organs. They are also seen to have varied capabilities to acquire and utilize water efficiently. In the plant system, the rate of dry matter production has a definite relation with the rate of transpirational loss of water and this transpiration ration is calculated on the basis of unit of water required to produce unit of drymatter. However, while calculating the water requirement of fruit plants, a number of factors, in addition to water use efficiency, are taken in to consideration. Naturally water requirement of a particular fruit plants varies with the agro-ecological condition of different places. Moreover the same cannot be equal in an established orchard and a newly planted one. In established orchard, the trees are grown in community where improved water use efficiency lower down the water requirement of the trees.

Definition : These are the splints made out of light metal rods or bamboo for correction and immobilization of middle and higher level fracture in animals.

I. FILL UPS

1. The beheaded portion of cabbage is called _____.
2. _____ method is followed for cauliflower seed production in India.
3. In carrot, _____ method is followed among seed companies for large commercial seed production.
4. Knob to seed method is followed in _____.
5. Bulb to seed method is followed in _____.

Purpose

Method of tying with bamboo splint with ring is very important because of the following points.

A string fitting with the bamboo splint is required as with loose fitting with it may come up at any stage before actual bone healing.

Introduction

The word cooperation is of Latin origin and it means to work together (Filley, 1929).Cooperatives are founded on the values of self-help, self-responsibility, democracy, equality, equity and solidarity. Based on the founding principles of co-operatives, members believe in the ethical values of honesty, openness, social responsibility and caring for others (Canadian Business Service Centre, 2004). A fishery co-operative society can be defined as “An autonomous association of people united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly-owned and democratically controlled fishery enterprise or fishery activities.”

Attitude implies that the individual is no longer neutral toward the referent psychological objects. The person would be positively inclined or negatively disposed in some degree towards the referents (Campbell, 1963; Allport, 1966; Newcomb, 1966; Zanden, 1977; Burr, 2000). The response in this connection is a lasting one, as long as the attitude in question is operative. Attitude refers to a psychological individual’s stands about objects, issues, persons, groups, or Institutions. The definition of attitude proposed by Triandis (1971) suggests that attitude has three components: (a) a cognitive component (the idea), (b) an affective component (the emotions), and (c) a behavioural component (the action).

Introduction

Plant protection in India is mainly based on use of pesticidal chemicals. Chemical control is one of the effective and quicker methods in reducing pest population where farmer gets spectacular results within a short time. However, indiscriminate use of pesticides results in a series of problems in the agricultural ecosystem mainly the development of resistance in insects to insecticides, resurgence of treated population, environmental contamination and residue hazards. Destruction of natural enemies of insect-pests, expenses on pesticides etc. contributed to a new way of thinking concerning pest control practices i.e. integrated approach of pest control. IPM was first proposed by Stern and his collegues for integration of biological and chemical control measures. This is not altogether a new concept; it was practiced before the advent of modern chemicals. The date of sowing the crop were carefully studied to ensure that crop was not being planted when it would encounter severe pest problems, cultural practices such as ploughing after harvest, timely weed control, well timed irrigation and reduced use of fertilizers all contributed to reduce pest population. Most of these methods were curtailed when modern pesticides become available it was thought that these chemicals alone could control pests, but now we know that this is not possible and a single method of approach in pest control is not feasible. An integrated approach of pest management (IPM) was devised on the principles of managing the pest rather than eradicating them. IPM is a broad ecological approach for managing pest problem encompassing available methods and techniques such as cultural, biological, mechanical and chemical in a compatible manner to reduce and maintain the pest problem below the economic injury level.

Introduction

Economists consider a producer as an income or profit maximiser. In our context, it may mean enhancement of fisheries contribution to the GDP, increased fish production, Nutritional security of those who need it most, not just those who can afford to pay for it improvement in the livelihood conditions of the stakeholders, augmenting exports to net more foreign exchange, growth with social equity or inclusive growth, etc. Realisation of a goal or target depends on development and enforcement of necessary policy strategies for which a reliable data base is inevitable. Analytical trends of the past data could help to project future trend which could indicate feasibility of the envisioned goal. Here, an outline of some of the Methodological issues in Fisheries data collection is provided.

The Resource Endowments

Fisheries is a sunrise sector in India, in terms of food and nutritional security, employment and income generation. India is the 3rd largest fish producer and the 2nd in aquaculture production, globally. It contributes about 1% of national GDP and 5 % of agriculture GDP. The exports of marine products account for about 5% of total Indian exports in 2018-19. The estimated fish production during 2017-18 was 12-59 million tones (mt). It was 10.14% increase over 11.43 million t in 2016-17. Inland fisheries grew at 14.05% while marine fisheries rose at 1.73% in 2017-18. Fisheries sub-sector provides livelihood support and gainful employment to 14 million people. Many more may be employed now as available data is yet to be updated.

Introduction

The term ‘Fish Marketing’ is composed of two broad meaning term ‘Fish’ and ‘Marketing’. Before discussing the methodological issues of fish marketing data analysis, we must understand the broader meaning of it as both words are being used frequently with a précised meaning. Google dictionary explains fish as ‘A limbless cold-blooded vertebrate animal with gills and fins living wholly in water’. But ‘fish’ as a component of fish marketing or social science study, means a product and a variety of product, which has different time, space and form utilities for consumers.

The word ‘marketing’ is not merely buying and selling of fish, rather it connotes a series of activities involved in moving goods or services from point of production to the point of consumption. So ‘fish marketing’ is defined as physical and institutional set up to perform all activities involved in the flow of fish, fish products and services from the point of initial fish production until they are in the hands of ultimate customers.

It includes assembling, handling, storage, transport, processing, wholesaling, retailing and export of fish and fishery products as well as accompanying supporting services such as market information, establishment of grades and standards, community trade, financing and price risk management and the institutions involved in performing the above functions.

It is desired to have an efficient and well planned distribution networkso that fish and fishery products move from the place of landing or production to the place of consumption at cheapest cost with quality –intact, ensuring the maximum price realization to the farmers or fish producers. It is really challenging to the public agencies involved to meet the requirements of all three major players, viz., fishermen or fish farmers, consumers and traders.

It includes all activities involved in creation of time, place, form and possession utility. Philip Kotler explained marketing as the science and art of exploring, creating, and delivering value to satisfy the needs of a target market at a profit. ‘Fish marketing’ is different from marketing of other goods and services and even differs a bit from marketing of variousagricultural goods and services.

Key Facts

• Global fish production peaked at about 171 million tonnes (MT) in 2016, with aquaculture representing 47 perc ent of the total and 53 per cent of non-food uses (Global capture fisheries production was 90.9 MT in 2016)

• World fish production is projected to increase by 15% in the next 10 years, reaching around 200 MT per year

• The total first sale value of fisheries and aquaculture production in 2016 was estimated at USD 362 billion, of which USD 232 billion was from aquaculture production

• Fish (including shellfish) provides essential nutrition for 3 billion people and at least 50% of animal protein and minerals to 400 million people from the poorest countries

• 10-12% people, i.e. over 870 million people, depend on fisheries and aquaculture

• Aquaculture is the world’s fastest growing food production system, growing at 7% annually

• Women account for 19% of all people directly engaged in the fisheries and aquaculture sector, and over 50% when including the post-harvest sector

Climate Change: A global externality

Climate Change (CC) is a result of the externality associated with greenhouse gas emissions. It entails costs that are not paid for by those who create the emissions.

Distinguished Features from Other Externalities

• Climate change is global in its causes and consequences;

• The impacts of climate change are long-term and persistent;

• Uncertainties and risks in the economic impact are pervasive;

• There is a serious risk of major, irreversible change with non- marginal economic effects

Definition of Climate Change

Climate change refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer).

Introduction

Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system (Rogers, 1962, 1983, 1995, 2003). It is a broader term, which encompasses unplanned as well as planned and directed spread of an innovation. Dissemination is planned and directed diffusion of an innovation. In case of Integrated pest management which is a complex sort of decision making process, many technology transfer approaches were/are tried for dissemination of IPM technologies to farmers. These include radio, television, print media, training and visit, field days, demonstrations, extension field visits and participatory learning approaches like participatory technology development (PTD) and farmers field school (FFS). While Training and Visit (T&V) system failed, Farmers Field School (FFS) approach of educating farmers followed by ‘Community IPM’ activities and ‘Farmers to Farmer’ approach registered success in IPM implementation in developing countries (Matteson, 2000).

At country level, there is major paradiam shift from cropping systems towards farming system research in XI Plan period. The mandate of Project Directorate for Cropping Systems Research, Modipuram stands changed with focus on Farming Systems and re-named as Project Directorate for Farming Systems Research. w.e.f. 1.4.2009. The All India Co-ordinated Research Project on Cropping Systems with its 69 on-station and on-farm centres representing different agro-climatic zones of the country also stands re-named as AICRP on Integrated Farming Systems. As such, the much needed methodologies and procedures for planning, monitoring and interpretation of farming systems related data are not readily available. Therefore, some methodologies and procedures which can be adopted to execute Farming Systems Research for drawing meaningful conclusions are discussed here.

Introduction

The present study was conducted among the regular Library and Information Science (LIS) professionals working in the eight-state universities in Kerala. Studies conducted on similar topics were collected after that the research design for the present study was developed. The researcher has visited all the selected universities in Kerala and met almost all the LIS professionals to collect the relevant primary data for the study.

The chapter elucidates research methods and techniques employed in the present study to answer the research problem. Research design, selection of variables, research methodology, and data analysis employed in the study are described in this chapter. The methodology adopted in the present investigation to answer the research problem designed for the study is included. 

Abstract

Agroforestry is an integrated self-sustainable land use management system that is not only capable of producing food from marginal agricultural land but also capable of maintaining and improving the quality of environment. It plays a vital role in achieving integrated rural and urban development. But reliable data on number of trees and area under agroforestry is not available as methodology for estimation of even area under agroforestry is not yet standardized. In this paper, a methodology for estimation of number of trees under agroforestry using high resolution satellite data has been proposed and estimation of number of trees as well as area under agroforestry in Ludhiana district of Punjab State has been done using the proposed methodology. Land use/land cover map of the district has also been generated using ERDAS IMAGINE software. It has been observed from the accuracy assessment that the estimates of number of trees as well as area under agroforestry obtained using the proposed methodology under this study are very reliable. Therefore, the proposed methodology may be replicated for estimating number of trees as well as area under agroforestry in other parts of the country.

Keywords: Agroforestry; Estimation of number of trees, Area estimation; Remote Sensing; GIS