eChapters

Introduction

The inevitability of detrimental effects of climate change is looming large not only on the sustenance of agriculture, but also on the survival and progress of mankind. Estimates by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) reveal that the atmospheric concentration of GHG would exceed 680 parts per million (ppm) CO₂-equivalents by 2050, which is about 50% higher than baseline year 2010 (OECD, 2012). Additionally, global temperature is predicted to increase by 2°C within this period, resulting in meansea level rise and erraticweather conditions. Consequently, the catastrophic effects on food consumption pattern by the end of 2050 will create malnutrition in at least 290 million people. Agricultural crops provide 63% of the human protein, and additionally supply almost 100% protein to the livestock, which are the second major sources of protein in human diet. Altogether, the detrimental effect of climate change on agriculture would make about 300 million additional people malnourished. Add to that a 2.7 billion increase in human population by 2050, coupled with shortage of water availability that would affect 3.9 billion people by 2050, and one can easily perceive the grim scenario for our kind in not so distant future.

Tamarind (Tamarindus Indica)

Introduction

The fruit of tamarind a pod 5 to 15 cm long, 3 to 10 seeds surrounded with edible pulp which is principal souring agent for sauces, chutney, in beverages and in general cooking. Pulp is carminative, laxative, given as infusion in biliousness and febrile conditions. It is also used in dyring and tanning and for polishing and cleaning metal ware. The tartaric acid is extracted from unripe fruits. The polysaccharide (jellose) is extracted from seeds, which is used as a sizing material in the cotton and jute industries. Besides, polyose obtained from the seed is good substitute for fruit pectin in the preparation of jam, jelly or marmalade. The bark and leaves are used for tanning. Tamarind balls are prepared after taking out seeds from the fruit. Tamarind paste and tamarind juice concentrate are the other commercial products.

The fruits, flattish, bean-like, irregulary curved and bulged pods, are born in great abundance along the new branches and usually vary from 2 to 7 in long and from 3/4 to 1 1/4 in (2-3.2 cm) in diameter. Exceptionally large tamarinds have been found on individual trees. The pods may be cinnamon-brown or grayish-brown externally and, at first, are tender-skinned with green, highly acid flesh and soft, whitish, under-developed seeds. As they mature, the pods fill out somewhat and the juicy, acidulous pulp turns brown or reddish-brown.

Greens and salad crops are grown for their foliage and are used since antiquity in soups, boiled, pickled or eaten raw and are recognized as important ingredients in the diet. Stephen Switzer, in Practical Kitchen Gardner (1727) identified 30-40 species as raw salads. Plants like Purslane, Burdock, Orache, Borage, Salad Burnet, Sea Kale, Dandelion, French Sorrel, Alexanders and many other plants are used as greens.
 
Greens and salads are very well represented in the garden works of John Randolph and Joseph Prentis in Williamsburg who  described that markets carried a wide selection of greens making available to the general public. But the salad greens were not mentioned in local diaries as often as common vegetables like cauliflowers, artichokes or melons, because they were used more as a garnish than as a main dish.
 
The popularity of individual varieties of greens changed over time. Many of the minor greens, like Purslane and Alexanders were common in the 17th century and before, but largely disappeared by the 18th century. Rocket, or Arugula, was listed by all authors in 16th and 17th century works but fell out of favor in England by the middle of  18th century.

Introduction
Japanese mint (Mentha arvensis) was first introduced in India at Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu during 1952 from Japan (Kapoor et al., 1955); and then to Drug Research Laboratory, Jammu at Chakrohi farm. Subsequently, it was introduced to CIMAP Northern Zonal Research Station at Haldwani in Nainital district (U.P.) during 1963-64. In India,  the crop is mainly grown in Tarai districts of U.P. (Nianital, Badayun, Bilaspur, Rampur, Moradabad and Bareilly); extending to parts of Indo-Gangetic plains (Barabanki and Lucknow); and parts of Punjab (Ludhiana and Jalandhar) in the north-western India. Mint or Pudina comes under a small genus Mentha of aromatic perennial herbs which belongs to family Labiatae (Laminaceae), distributed mainly to temperate and sub-temperate regions of the world. It has blue, laverder or white flowers in whorls.
Peppermint (M. x piperita) and spearmint (M. spicata) are largely cultivated in America, mainly in Oregan, Indiana, Idaho and south Michigan states. It was introduced in India during early 1980s. Uses
The above-ground herb (foliage) on distillation yields essential oil containing a large variety of aroma chemical command a large and world-wide demand in industry as given below.

Introduction
Japanese mint (Mentha arvensis) was first introduced in India at Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu during 1952 from Japan (Kapoor et al., 1955); and then to Drug Research Laboratory, Jammu at Chakrohi farm. Subsequently, it was introduced to CIMAP Northern Zonal Research Station at Haldwani in Nainital district (U.P.) during 1963-64. In India,  the crop is mainly grown in Tarai districts of U.P. (Nianital, Badayun, Bilaspur, Rampur, Moradabad and Bareilly); extending to parts of Indo-Gangetic plains (Barabanki and Lucknow); and parts of Punjab (Ludhiana and Jalandhar) in the north-western India. Mint or Pudina comes under a small genus Mentha of aromatic perennial herbs which belongs to family Labiatae (Laminaceae), distributed mainly to temperate and sub-temperate regions of the world. It has blue, laverder or white flowers in whorls.
Peppermint (M. x piperita) and spearmint (M. spicata) are largely cultivated in America, mainly in Oregan, Indiana, Idaho and south Michigan states. It was introduced in India during early 1980s. Uses
The above-ground herb (foliage) on distillation yields essential oil containing a large variety of aroma chemical command a large and world-wide demand in industry as given below.

7.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in the Mediterranean basin and spread to rest of world by both natural and artificial means.

• USA - major producer of pepper mint and spear mint

• Bergamot mint - native of Europe and naturalized in eastern USA

• Grows successfully in temperate and subtropical region of India.

• India - Japanese mint - Terai region, extending to parts of Indo Gangetic plains and parts of Punjab in North-Western India.

7.2. Economic importance

7.2.1. Japanese mint or corn mint or field mint (M. arvensis), 2n: 36, 72.

Scientific name: Mentha spp.
Family: Lamiaceae
Mint belongs to the genus Mentha and is part of the Lamiaceae family, including popular herbs like basil, sage, and rosemary. There are several commercially grown mint species, each with unique chemical compositions, aromas, and uses.
Origin and distribution
Mint originated in the Mediterranean region and spread globally through natural and artificial means. Japanese mint is widely cultivated in Brazil, Paraguay, China, and India, while peppermint is grown in the USA, Morocco, Argentina, and Australia.
Botany
Japanese mint (Mentha arvensis) is a perennial, ascending herb that typically grows to a height of 60-80 cm, with the potential to reach up to 100 cm under favorable conditions. This herb is primarily propagated through its stolons, which enable it to spread and establish new plants. The leaves of Japanese mint are lanceolate-oblong in shape, featuring sharp teeth along their edges, and are supported by small petioles approximately 5 mm in length. The leaf lamina itself measures between 5 to 15 cm in length. Notably, the lower surface of the leaves is densely covered with hairy growths of glandular trichomes. The plant produces an abundance of small, purplish flowers in axillary and terminal verticillasters. These flowers are characterized by a corolla measuring 4-5 mm in length and a calyx that is narrowly deltoid and acuminate, measuring 2-3 mm. Japanese mint is sterile and does not produce seeds, relying solely on vegetative means of propagation.

Potted Plants

In urban areas, scarcity of space compels the dwellers to take up gardening on rooftop, terrace, balcony or small space adjacent to the house. Usually, plants are grown in pots or containers for rooftop gardening. Big size pots with diameter of 30 cm or more are required for growing rose plant. It is necessary to prefer tall pots to obtain appropriate growth of the plant having deeper root system. Now-a-days, pots of different materials such as clay, cement and plastic are used for growing potted plants. Usually, clay pots are better than plastic pots as clay is slow in transfer of heat thereby maintaining the root zone cooler. Of course, plastic pots are lighter and suitable for use on the rooftop as those put less load on the building structure. Light coloured plastic is preferred to dark colour as those generate less heat. Although heavier, cemented pots are more durable than earthen or plastic pots. The pots should have adequate drainage facility with holes in the bottom. Besides, a layer of gravel or medium-size stone of one-inch thickness are to be placed at the bottom of the container to facilitate drainage.

This chapter deals with equipment and machineries that are used in certain specific operations/ areas.

25.1. Lac cultivation

High-capacity scraper cum grader, scraper cum grader

25.2. Mushroom production

Grain Cleaner, Grain boiler, Boiled grain and Chalk powder mixer, Bag/bottle filler, Spawn inoculators, Substrate mixer - manually operated

1 Deficiency of which of the following trace minerals leads to parakeratosis of skin in pigs

a) Zinc b) Copper

c) Cobalt d) Iron

1 Goose stepping gait is observed due to deficiency of

a) Biotin b) Pyrodoxin

c) Pantothenic acid d) Niacian

1 The system that is most susceptible to hypoxia is

a) Respiratory System b) Cardiovascular System

c) Nervous system d) Digestive system

1 The focal point of any disease investigation in animal is making of

a) Treatment b) Diagnosis

c) Management d) Prognosis

1 Hypoxia caused due to defective oxygenation of blood in pulmonary circulation

a) Anoxic anoxia b) Anaemic anoxia

c) Stagnant anoxia d) Histotoxic anoxia

1 Ovine ketosis is more common during

a) Early lactation b) Late Pregnancy

c) Early Pregnancy d) Late lactation

1 Hepatosis dietetica in swine is caused by

a) Deficiency of vitamin-E & Se

b) Feeding of high energy diet

c) Excess of unsaturated fatty acid in the diet

d) Deficiency of vitamin A

Unna’s Method for Mast Cells
Tissues fix in 10% neutral buffered formalin and process for routine paraffin sections
Protocol
1) Deparaffinise the paraffin sections with two changes (10 minutes each) of xylene.
2) Descending grades of ethanol from absolute to 50% solution (2 minutes each).
3) Hydrate the sections with distilled water 5 minutes.
4) Polychrome methylene blue solution for 10 minutes.
5) Rinsing in distilled water.
6) Differentiate in glycerin-ether solution for 30 seconds to 1 minute.
7) Washing in water for 2-3 minutes.
8) Blotting with filter paper.
9) Dehydrate quickly in 100% ethanol.
10) Clearing in xylene, two changes of 30 minutes each.
11) Mount glass cover slip with DPX.

• Epidemiological definitions

 • List of tests for international trade

 • OIE listed diseases

 • Solutions and reagents

 • Age and body weight of animals

 • Rectal temperature of animals

 • Normal values of blood vascular system

 • Vaccination schedule

A. Answer the following.

Q.1.     What is the full form of the followings : MALT, GALT and BALT
Ans.    MALT : Mucosa associated lymphoid tissue ; GALT : Gut associated lymphoid tissue ; BALT : Bronchus associated lymphoid tissue

Q.2     What is the definition of antigen ?
Ans.    Antigen is any agent capable of binding specifically to components of the immune response such as lymphocytes and antibodies.

Q.3.     What is the definition of immunogen ?
Ans.    Immunogen is any agent capable of inducing an immune response.

14.1 Introduction

In this chapter we shall describe various simple and easy to fabricate fiber optic sensors. Most of these sensors are based on intensity modulation. Intensity modulated optical fiber sensors have been extensively studied in comparison to sensors based on other modulation techniques. This is because of their several advantages such as simplicity, reliability, flexibility and relatively low cost. Intensity modulated sensors make use of multimode fibers. Multimode fibers have large core and high numerical aperture that make the coupling of light into the fiber easier. The large core is also better suited to propagate high power laser beams. Further, the plastic-clad fused silica multimode fibers are available. Plastic-clad silica multimode fibers have an additional advantage. Their plastic cladding can be removed easily permitting access to the core. The evanescent field in the unclad part has been used for various kinds of chemical and biochemical sensors (see chapter 5). Above all, these fibers are cheap. This chapter is devoted to simple and easy to make both intrinsic and extrinsic type sensors. Sensors utilizing bare-ended fibers have also been described.

The following tests are discussed under this section:
    16.1    Estimation of ascorbic acid concentration
    16.2    Effect of cold shock
    16.3    Mitochondrial activity
    16.4    Capacitation of spermatozoa and calcium influx 
    16.5    Morphometric analysis
    16.6    Flow cytometry

16.1 Estimation of Ascorbic Acid Concentration

Ascorbic acid concentration in semen is beneficial for its antioxidant action. It protects the spermatozoa against oxidative damage of free radical produced in the semen.

Materials Required

    1.    Test tubes with stand
    2.    Burrette with stand
    3.    Centrifuge tube with stand

13.1 Introduction
In the previous chapters, we have considered different tests of significance based on normal distribution, F distribution, student’s t distribution and Chi-square (χ2) distribution which are frequently applied by the users of different disciplines of applied sciences and social sciences. In this chapter some more tests of significance are considered which have not been covered in those chapters. These tests are also based on t, F, Fisher’s z transformation, χ2 and some other test statistics are also discussed one by one in the following sections.

13.1 Introduction

In the previous chapters, we have considered different tests of significance based on normal distribution, F distribution, student’s t distribution and Chi-square (x²) distribution which are frequently applied by the users of different disciplines of applied sciences and social sciences. In this chapter some more tests of significance are considered which have not been covered in those chapters. These tests are also based on t, F, Fisher’s z transformation,  and some other test statistics are also discussed one by one in the following sections.

13.2 t Test for Testing the Significance of an Observed Sample Correlation Coefficient r ^xy

Let r be the observed sample correlation coefficient based on a small sample of size n drawn from a bi-variate normal population with population correlation coefficient r. The standard error of r is given as

Edaphology is the study of soil properties in relation to plant higher production.

Pedology refers to study of origin of soils in their natural environment, classification and description.

pH is the negative logarithm of the concentration of H+ ions in soil solution.

Soil profile is a vertical exposure of horizon sequence.

Soil texture is not changed by cultural management.

Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is defined as sum total of exchangeable cations that a soil can absorb.

New Technique of Food Preservation

1. High Pressure Processing (HPP)

High Pressure Processing (HPP) is a method of food processing where food is subjected to elevated pressures (up to 87,000 pounds per square inch or approximately 6,000 atmospheres), with or without the addition of heat, to achieve microbial inactivation or to alter the food attributes in order to achieve consumer-desired qualities. Pressure inactivates most vegetative bacteria at pressures above 60,000 pounds per square inch. HPP retains food quality, maintains natural freshness, and extends microbiological shelf life. The process is also known as high hydrostatic pressure processing (HHP) and ultra high-pressure processing (UHP).

Determination of True Protein

Apparatus

Wide mouth stoppered bottle, water bath plus those used for total nitrogen (crude protein) determination.

Reagents

1. Saturated solution of potash alum.
2. Stutzer reagent-Dissolve 40g of CuSO₄ in 2 litres of water in a wide mouth stoppered bottle. Add 10ml of glycerine and sufficient quantity of 30 % NaOH to make the solution alkaline (Litmus paper). Shake the contents and allow to settle. Discard the supernatant liquid. Collect the precipitate on a filter paper and transfer it to glass mortar with the help of spatula. Add 3ml of glycerine and a little water in the mortar and triturate the precipitate with a glass pastle. Transfer the triturated material to a wide mouth stoppered bottle, add 600ml of water, shake well and filter. Repeat the process till the precipitate (filtrate) is free from alkali and sulphate. Collect the precipitate and add 30ml glycerine. Dilute the emulsion to 320ml with water and preserve in a container.

Q. 1 In building material RCC stands for
(A) Revised cost calculation
(B) Revised construction cost
(C) Reinforced central construction
(D) Reinforced cement concrete

A. First Aid
1. Abscess
What to Do

    ·    Abscesses should be examined by a veterinarian as soon as possible and within 24 hours.
 
    ·    Fluid may normally drain from the site of an abscess. An abscess does not drain through the tube, but rather around the latex tubing. Therefore, it is important for you to clean the area around the drain twice daily with warm water.

    ·    Apply a hot compress to the affected site at least two times daily for 3 to 5 days after the animal leaves the hospital. Wet a clean washcloth with very warm water and place it directly over the affected site, and then apply gentle pressure ideally for 5 to 10 minutes.

The understanding of VAM symbiont and VAM symbiosis is of prime importance in manipulating VAM associations for the welfare of plants. Many contributions have been made worldover in the areas of taxonomy, morphology, anatomy, histology, cytology and genetics of VAM fungi and/or their associations with the plants. However, the share of Indian mycorrhizasts in such contributions is negligible. The following description gives an account of work done by the mycorrhizasts of the country in these areas.

There aremany different points of view aboutthe nanotechnology. These differences start with the definition of nanotechnology. Some define it as any activity that involves manipulating materials between one nanometer and 100 nanometers. However the original definition of nanotechnology involved building machines at the molecular scale and involves the manipulation of materials on an atomic (about two-tenths of a nanometer) scale.

The debate continues with varying opinions about exactly what nanotechnology can achieve. Some researchers believe nanotechnology can be used to significantly extend the human lifespan or produce replicator-like devices that can create almost anything from simple raw materials. Others see nanotechnology only as a tool to help us do what we do now, but faster or better.

The third major area of debate concerns the timeframe of nanotechnology-related advances. Will nanotechnology have a significant impact on our day-to-day lives in a decade or two, or will many of these promised advances take considerably longer to become realities?

Finally, all the opinions about what nanotechnology can help us achieve echo with ethical challenges. If nanotechnology helps us to increase ourlifespans orproduce manufactured goodsfrom inexpensive raw materials, what is the moral imperative about making such technology available to all? Is there sufficient understanding or regulation of nanotech based materials to minimize possible harm to us or ourenvironment? Only timewill tell how nanotechnology will affect our lives.

Loss of experimental observations is a common practical problem in forestry and agricultural experiments because seeds, seedlings, plants, and trees may be damaged by natural events, animals, anthropogenic activities, or other causes. This chapter presents the missing plot technique for estimating unavailable observations so that an experiment can continue to be analysed. It explains why missing observations can reduce the information and precision of an experiment and discusses alternative approaches for handling incomplete data. The chapter focuses particularly on the method of least squares and the iteration method. Applications include estimation of missing values in Randomized Block Designs and other experimental layouts used in forestry research.

Perennial nature of horticultural fruit crops provides a stable environment for the buildup and development of mite populations, as against the ephemeral habitat of short-lived plants. The phytophagous mites are represented by 169 species whereas 148 species belong to the predatory group. Mites (subclass Acari) are ecologically and morphologically very diverse group of tiny invertebrates that belong to the class Arachnida (along with scorpions and spiders), subphylum Chelicerata under Arthropods. As arthropods also include insects, but mites are differ because they have four pair of legs (insects are hexapods), lack of true head and conspicuous segmentation of the body. 

There are several species in this cosmopolitan family that are of importance chiefly as pests of stored foods, flour, grain, seeds and bulbs, feeding on these products or the fungi that develop on them. These mites are mostly very minute, almost colourless, with the body bearing a few long setae, and with the legs terminating in one claw and usually a sucker. When very abundant the mites and their cast skins form a buff-colored dust and give rise to a characteristic odour. The living mites move slowly away from a source of light. An interesting characteristic of these mites is a nymphal resting stage (hypopus) during which they take no food but attach themselves to other mites, insects and humans by means of suckers and are thereby transported to other suitable places for development, where they drop off, moult, feed, and develop into adult stage. The hypopus may be resistant to fumigants. However, the cheese mites, Tyrophagus casei do not have a hypopial stage. Prolonged storage of products subject to infestation without cleaning of pantries and shelves where such materials are placed. These mites can subsist on organic debris in cracks, crevices and corners and are readily spread to other areas.

Mites are small arthropods belonging to the subclass Acari (also known as Acarina) and the class Arachnida. The scientific discipline devoted to the study of ticks and mites is called acarology. In soil ecosystems, mites are favored by high organic matter content and by moist conditions, wherein they actively engage in the fragmentation and mixing of organic matter (Nyle and Ray, 2009). Mites are among the most diverse and successful of all the invertebrate groups. They have exploited an incredible array of habitats, and because of their small size (most are microscopic), go largely unnoticed. Many live freely in the soil or water, but there are also a large number of species that live as parasites on plants, animals, and some that feed on mold. It is estimated that 48,200 species of mites have been described (Halliday et al., 2000).

Mites are small arthropods belonging to the sub-class Acari (also known as Acarina) and the class Arachnida. The scientific discipline devoted to the study of ticks and mites is called acarology. In soil ecosystems, mites are favored by high organic matter content and by moist conditions, wherein they actively engage in the fragmentation and mixing of organic matter (Nyle and Ray, 2009).

Mites have been known as pests of agricultural and horticultural crops since long but now they rank as very serious pests and vectors of many plant diseases. The application and extensive use of pesticides, fertilizer and improved cultural methods have probably favoured increase of the population. Mites as crop pests are confined to certain group of the other acari. Near about 20,000 species have been described of the total mite fauna on a world basis. From India, 660 species of phytophagous mites have been described and nearly 30 species are reported as potential pests (Gupta 1987). Phytophagous mite belongs to family - Tetranychidae, Tenuipalpidae, Tarsonemidae, Eriophyidae and Tuckerellidae. These mites cause direct damage like loss of chlorophyll, stunting of growth, defoliation, reduction in size and quality of fruits, appearance of various types of plant deformities etc. and all these severely affect the yield. Besides causing direct damages, few phytophagous mites inject toxic substances in to their hosts, which cause increased localized growth and disruption of tissue (Jeppson et al. 1975), and many species belonging to family – Eriophyidae are known to act as vectors of plant viruses. The dust entangled in the web formed by tetranychid mites on leaves prevent the sunlight reaching the leaf surface and as result photosynthesis is impaired, the leaves turn pale, yellow and fall down. This affects the vitality of the plant.

Introduction

Mites and ticks belong to acarology an offshoot of animal science Zoology a common man mites and insects look alike but former can be easily differentiated by absence wings and antennae and presence of four pairs of legs in most farms. Parasitic mites and ticks live on domestic animals, pets and poultry (Baker and Pritchard, 1960; Baker and Tuttle, 1994; Krantz and Walter, 2009). They are responsible for inducing paralysis, host intoxication, irritation carriers of pathogens and other health disorders to them. The severe bites of ticks cause tick toxicosis producing deep wounds, which bleed and are open to secondary infection. Parasitic mites are among the serious pests of the bees the world over. At times they cause mass mortality of brood and put a heavy loss to apiculture industry. Both solitary and social bees that are important pollinators are parasitized by Messostigmatid mites reducing their life span and foraging efficiency. They parasitize silkworm larvae, pupae and adults. By their toxication silkworms die in few hours. Man himself is not free from the attack of mites. Human itch mite, scabies mite and pyroglyphid mites causing allergic asthma are notorious examples of parasitic mites on man. Dancing on the head of a pin’ is definitely impossible for most animals. However, a large number of mites, the smallest Arachnida could do it. The size of these creatures ranges from a fraction of a millimetre, invisible to the naked eye, to about one centimetre in ticks.

Mites are small arthropods which attack number of crops damaging different parts of the plants (leaves, buds, flowers and fruits) and due to short duration of life cycle and high fecundity, their population increases at a fast rate and when feeding in large numbers they become serious pest of many crops. Since last few years the menace of mites is on the increase in Indian sub-continent causing enormous losses. One of the probable reasons for it is attributed to excessive use of broad-spectrum pesticides, which have led to the development of resistance in mites. Further, owing to their deleterious effect on non target organisms, especially natural enemies of the mites in the ecosystem there is often a spurt in the population of mites which otherwise may be of minor pest category. Because of their small size, the infestation goes unnoticed in the beginning and by the time prominent symptoms appear a lot of damage has already been done.

FRUIT CROPS

In fruit crops, being perennial in nature, the infestation of mites not only affects the trees at a particular time but their overall vigour gets reduced which is reflected in reduction in production as well as poor quality of the fruit in the years to come. The identification characters, nature of damage and the symptoms must be well understood in order to manage the mite pests effectively. A number of mites are associated with various fruit crops and those infesting major fruit crops are discussed herewith.

Mites
Subclass: Acari
Order: Parasitiformes 
Suborder: Gamasida/Mesostigmata
Characters
1. Mites of this group have the stigmata or spiracles in the middle of the body, hence suborder Gamasida is also called suborder mesostigmata. Mites of this group are referred as gamasid mite.
2. Size of these mites are large about 0.6-2.5 mm in length and hence visible via naked eye.
3. They parasitisize birds and mammals.

Some have described Mithun as domesticated Gaur others as a hybrid descent from the crossing of gaur bulls and common cows. Considered to have originated along the Assam and Myanmar border. • Mithun, also known as ‘Cattle of Mountain” is an important bovine species of north-eastern hill region of India and also of China, Myanmar, Bhutan and Bangladesh. This magnificent massive bovine is presently reared under free-range condition in the hill forests at an altitude of 1000 to 3000 m above mean sea level.

• Mithun plays an important role in the socio-economic and cultural life of the local tribal population.

• Presently, this animal is mainly reared for meat, which is considered to be more tender and superior over the meat of any other species.

• Mithun milk, though produced less in quantity, is of high quality and can be used for preparation of various milk products.

• Leather obtained from this species has been found to be superior to cattle.

In spite of development of irrigation and expansion in transportation and communication; the risk or we can say threat in agriculture sector such as its production and yield has increased in the country. The risk is much higher for farm income than production, as is evident from lower risk in area and higher risk in production. It has been reviewed from the state wise results of area and production which shows that only in the states where irrigation is very consistent; it helped in plummeting the risk and vice-versa. In some states farmers face twin problem of very low productivity accompanied by high risk of production. Also, with the course of time, neither technology nor any other measure helped in reducing production risk in all over the country. Therefore, there is strong need to plan and broaden insurance products or we can say insurance policies for agricultural crops and their production. No doubt various insurance schemes has been launched by the Government of India for covering various agricultural crops in the country as well as in the states but agriculture insurance has served very limited purpose. The coverage through insurance schemes in terms of area under crops, number of farmers and value of agricultural output obtained is very small and the payment of insurance based on area approach fail to notice affected farmers outside the compensated area, and most of the schemes are not workable. It has been viewed in most of the parts of the country. So there is a need to restructure the programme vigilantly to make it feasible and to increase its prospects for future expansion to impact more farmers. This whole process is in immediate need of rehabilitated efforts by Government of India as well as state governments in provisions of introducing new crop insurance policies with full financial support. The government should also extend support to private stakeholders for providing agricultural insurance which in turn will help in increasing insurance coverage and in improving viability of the insurance schemes over time. Moreover the crop insurance policies shouldbe simple in plan so that they are easily understood to the farmers. At last we can say that, good insurance products with good management are key for successful operation of an agriculture insurance scheme all over the India.

Introduction

The changing climate and its variability are a big concern for the human being. The recurrent droughts and floods, which are the results of this changing climate seriously hamper the livelihood of billions of people who depend on land for most of their needs. According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (UNFCC; 1992), “climate change is the change that can be attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods” The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC report, 2022) issued a cautionary statement regarding the imminent attainment of the 1.5oC threshold by the global climate system within the forthcoming 20-year period. It further emphasized that only implementing exceedingly stringent reductions in carbon emissions, commencing at present, would serve as a viable measure to avert an impending ecological catastrophe.

Droughts: A time in which circumstances are significantly drier than average is referred to as a drought.

Floods: A flood is an abnormally large outpouring of water (or, on very rare occasions, other fluids) that covers normally dry ground.

Livelihoods: The term “livelihood” refers to a collection of activities that are carried out during one’s lifetime and are considered necessary to one’s day-to day existence. Obtaining necessities such as water, food, fodder, medication, shelter, and clothing are examples of such activities.

SYNOPSIS

Food and nutritional challenges continue to be tackled in East and Southern African countries. Prevailing rates of high malnutrition among children and often in adults in vulnerable geographical locations do suggest the need for appropriate interventions. Of several global nutrition interventions during the 1980s, successful implementation of nutrition programmes in Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Ethiopia have established strategies / approaches that are promising.  In Tanzania, the Iringa nutrition programme (WHO/UNICEF Joint Nutrition Support Programme) was implemented during 1983-1988.

Introduction

The foundation of agricultural productivity lies in the realm of weather and climate, a reality unaltered by technological progress. The consequences of climate change on agriculture represent a worldwide apprehension, particularly significant for India. Around 54.6% of the Indian population is engaged in agriculture and allied activities, contributing to 17.4% of the country’s total gross value added. The agriculture sector is battling a multitude of challenges, such as increasing food demand, depletion of agricultural lands and water resources, and the devastating effects of climate change. It is high time that we acknowledge and address these issues to safeguard the future of our food systems and ensure food security for all.

Climate change refers to the long-term variations in weather patterns and temperature over extended periods. Climate change occurs when earth’s climate system experiences variations in weather patterns that can last for decades or millions of years. These changes can arise naturally due to phenomena like volcanic eruptions or changes in solar activity. However, since the 1800s, human activities accelerate the natural pace of climate change, primarily due to the combustion of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas. These activities release greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2 ), methane (CH4 ), and nitrous oxide (N2 O) into the atmosphere, trapping heat and leading to a gradual increase in global temperatures. One of the most remarkable characteristics of climate change is the increase in temperature, which is widely referred to as global warming (Houghton, 2009). According to the report of Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change, the release of greenhouse gases caused by human actions has contributed to around 1.1°C of warming since the period between1850-1900. The report also predicts that the global temperature will likely increase to 1.5°C or more in the next 20 years (IPCC, 2021).

Introduction

Climate change is a deadliest hazard to life on Earth. Global temperature is rising due to greenhouse gas emissions from the usage of fossil fuels, this result in widespread agricultural and fisheries failure, the extinction of hundreds of thousands of species, and whole towns becoming uninhabitable (Lindwall, 2022). Rising global temperatures are severely killing humans and trees, forcing half of all species to move, worsening water-borne and respiratory ailments in people, and jeopardising millions’ food and water security (Isaacs-Thomas, 2022). Addressing these concerns necessitates a worldwide collaboration to minimise greenhouse gas emissions and promote sustainable behaviours. Climate change affects agriculture production, lowers crop nutritional value, and increases the frequency of extreme weather events. These interruptions jeopardise food production, availability, and access, especially in vulnerable countries. Microbes play an important role in soil health, nitrogen cycling, and ecosystem stability. They impact a variety of soil activities, such as organic matter breakdown, nutrient mobilisation, and plant growth stimulation. However, climate change poses a substantial danger to microbial communities, possibly changing their activities and altering ecosystem dynamics (Wang et al., 2022). Transitioning to a low-carbon economy requires a global effort. Mitigation strategies include enhancing energy efficiency, adopting renewable energy sources, electrifying industrial processes, implementing efficient transportation systems, and introducing carbon taxes or emissions markets.

Introduction

Rising temperature, decreasing precipitation, increased frequency in drought and flooding, etc. is making us realize climate change is not some cooked up story. Still there are people who believes climate change is not real. By definition, Climate change is a long-term shift in global or regional climate patterns. This will affect the life of people in many forms: health, food, water, etc. (Table 1). Agriculture is a highly vulnerable field to such weather and climate changes, they can have significant direct and indirect impacts on farm productivity and profitability. Climate change will have adverse effect on crop physiology, growth and chemistry and thus it will cause negative impact on agricultural production. Because of the variation in climate, moisture availability may change, which limits vegetation activity/plant growth, increase in drought/ heat/flooding will the crop growth and yield. Elevated CO2 does not have a profound effect on C4 plants. On the contrary, tissue nitrogen concentrations are higher for C3 species under increased CO2 . Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that climate change and elevated CO2 is expected to increase competitiveness of invasive weed. IPCC also estimates that with 1°C rise in global temperature, 5 to 10 per cent yield reduction of major food and cash crops (Pachauri et al., 2014).

Introduction

Climate change is widely acknowledged as the most significant contemporary challenge facing humanity. According to a recent report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2022), the situation has deteriorated further, with 3.3 billion people worldwide highly susceptible to climate change. Current unsustainable development practices are escalating the exposure of ecosystems and populations to climate-related risks. Human activities and their impact on the climate and environment are leading to unprecedented extinctions of animals and plants, resulting in a loss of biodiversity and posing a threat to life on Earth. The diversity of microorganisms is fundamental to maintaining a healthy global ecosystem, as the microbial world serves as the life support system of the biosphere. Although the influence of human activities on microorganisms is less conspicuous and less well understood, a significant concern is that changes in microbial biodiversity and functions will impact the resilience of other organisms, affecting their ability to adapt to climate change. Microorganisms play crucial roles in carbon and nutrient cycling, as well as in the health of animals (including humans), plants, agriculture, and the global food web. Microorganisms inhabit all environments on Earth occupied by larger organisms and are the exclusive life forms in certain environments such as the deep subsurface and extreme habitats. Dating back to the origin of life on Earth at least 3.8 billion years ago, microorganisms are likely to persist well beyond any future extinction events. Despite their vital role in regulating climate change, microorganisms are seldom the focal point of climate change studies and are typically overlooked in policy development. The challenge lies in understanding their intricate role in the ecosystem due to their vast diversity and varied responses to environmental changes.