eChapters

Cattle and buffalo are central to livestock-based livelihoods in India, particularly within natural farming systems where emphasis is placed on maintaining animal health and productivity without the use of synthetic inputs. The feeding strategy in such systems is built around the use of locally available, chemical-free resources that support sustainability and ecological harmony.
The core of the diet for cattle and buffalo in natural farming includes green fodder, dry crop residues, and naturally sourced supplements. Green fodders such as napier grass, guinea grass, berseem, and various legumes provide essential nutrients and roughage. These are complemented by dry fodders like wheat and paddy straw, which are vital for maintaining rumen health through their fiber content.
Natural concentrates such as oilseed cakes (from mustard, groundnut, etc.), along with pulses and mineral sources like crushed limestone and rock salt, are used to supply energy, protein, and essential minerals. In addition, herbs like turmeric, ginger, and ashwagandha are incorporated to enhance digestion and boost immunity naturally.
Seasonal fodder planning is practiced to maintain a continuous supply of feed throughout the year. Farmers often rely on traditional microbial additives such as Jeevamrit—a fermented solution made from cow dung, cow urine, jaggery, and water—which promotes gut health and improves feed efficiency.
Clean and sufficient water access is also a priority, with adult cattle and buffalo requiring around 30 to 50 liters per day depending on body size and milk production.

Backyard poultry rearing plays a vital role in natural farming systems, offering rural households a steady source of eggs, meat, and supplementary income with minimal financial input. This practice emphasizes the use of natural, locally available feed resources, avoiding dependence on commercial feeds or synthetic additives such as antibiotics.
In such systems, the poultry diet largely comprises kitchen leftovers, farmsourced grains, green leafy plants, and insects. Birds are typically allowed to forage freely, enabling them to consume a diverse range of natural items like worms, seeds, and tender greens. This scavenging behavior supports their nutritional needs by naturally providing proteins, minerals, and essential vitamins necessary for optimal growth and egg production.
To enhance their diet, farmers often include cereals such as maize, sorghum, and millet, along with protein-rich additions like pulses and oilseed cakes. Green fodders—particularly nutrient-dense options like moringa and amaranth leaves— are commonly supplied to boost vitamin and mineral intake.
Natural immunity boosters such as turmeric, neem leaves, and garlic are frequently incorporated into the birds’ feed or drinking water. These traditional herbal additives help strengthen resistance to disease, support digestion, and reduce parasitic loads. In some cases, fermented mixtures prepared from ingredients like cow dung and jaggery—resembling Jeevamrit—are provided to support gut health through probiotic action.
Providing clean, fresh water remains fundamental to maintaining poultry health. Feeding regimens are adapted to seasonal conditions, ensuring that nutritional requirements are met during periods of increased egg production or breeding.

Natural-fibre-reinforced green composites represent an important alternative to conventional synthetic-fibre composites. This chapter examines renewable fibres such as hemp, jute, flax, and sisal and their integration with bio-based polymer matrices. The discussion covers material composition, processing methods, environmental considerations, sustainability, applications, advantages, limitations, and current research developments. Natural fibres offer low density, renewability, biodegradability, and cost advantages, although hydrophilicity, variability, and processing limitations can affect composite performance. Surface treatments and appropriate fabrication methods are therefore important for improving mechanical, thermal, and durability characteristics. Applications in automotive, construction, packaging, and biomedical sectors demonstrate the growing potential of these sustainable composite materials.

In India, agriculture is the primary occupation and source of income for the vast majority of the population. More than 58% of the population depends on agriculture for their living. Indian agriculture has been expanding for a long time with the help of related industries like sheep, goat, cow, chicken, and egg production. The world’s largest livestock population resides in India. For rural residents, the livestock industry is one of the most significant sources of revenue and employment. Agriculture and livestock are highly interdependent, with agriculture providing crop waste, a primary source of feed for livestock, while livestock provide manure and draught power to agriculture. The fact is that agricultural production and livestock raising work together to fully utilise a farm. In terms of giving families in rural and urban regions nourishing food, livestock is also crucial.

Because it is so straightforward, raising sheep and goats is more popular among landless, small, and marginal farmers who rely on common grazing and forest lands for food. Some of the factors responsible for the concentration of sheep and goat rearing among these categories include low capital intensity, prolific breeding, superior chevon/mutton quality, early sexual maturity, high-quality skin, low kidding intervals, good adaptability, no religious taboo against consumption, and steady returns.

Natural goat farming is one among various farming systems that are close to nature and sustainability. In Uttrakhand which has 13-15 lakh goats as per animal husbandry department goat farming or rearing mimics how an animal would behave if they were freely living in the wild which therefore provides a more humane experience for the animal.In Uttrakhand, districts like Uttarkashi, Joshimath etc goat rearing is a part of indigenous lifestyle and tradition and is passed down generationally. They operate on no cost or low cost models therefore by default it is close to natural farming. They allow their goats to graze in forests and bugyal which are free from pesticides and fertilizers.Natural goat farming shall aim to use natural breeding methods, minimize stress, taking preventative measures and thereby eliminate the use of allopathic drugs or minimalist use of drug and detain animal health and welfare.Breed selection in natural goat farming should be indigenous as it is genetically adapted to specific or extreme conditions. They will be more productive and production cost will be lower.

Goat production for milk and meat is an age old practice and goat is one of the first animals to be domesticated by man. Throughout the world goat is considered as ‘poor man’s cow’. Central Institute for Research on Goats has projected it as ‘Future Animal’ for rural and urban prosperity (Chakrabarti, 2019). In Switzerland goat is nicknamed as “Swiss baby’s foster mother’ (Chakrabarti et al, 2014). Prasad et al., 2013 opined that among various livestock production enterprises, goat farming is one of the important enterprises, which supports the rural households by providing gainful employment and steady income for the rural masses. The households cultivating less than 2.0 ha of land (marginal and small) are the custodian of more than 76% of the total goats in the country (Singh et al., 2018). The Small ruminants are also important in a diversification strategy that aims to reduce market and climatic risks and optimize the use of available resources (Ayo-Enwerem et al., (2017). Goat farming is an important component in smallholder farming systems in Tripura. Goat rearing has grown from backyard farming to the localized cluster based intensified entrepreneurship activity throughout the state. Goat meat is considered in state is a high value product due to high market price than the any other meat available in the state. Also animals are mostly liked by the native people because of their varied adaptability and presence of lean meat. Goat farming becomes very popular in Tripura because of availability of abundant grass and fodder resources throughout the state. It becomes a significant food source due to its ability to convert poor quality of feed into valuable human food. At present total goat population of the world is more than one billion and 90% are available in developing countries.

Goats are important components of livestock industry and play a vital role in the socio-economic structure of the economically-week rural community. Goats have been reared as domestic animals across the world. In India, goat keeping constitutes an important business of small and marginal farmers and the landless due to multifold advantages. These are short generation interval, high rate of prolificacy, easy management and marketing as compared to larger ruminants. Goat milk got the nutritional merit of the animal food products in shape of the animal protein. It is highly nutritious, contains essential vitamins and minerals and is an ideal food for the entire family. Though there are 28 registered goat breeds in India (NBAGR, 2017) constituting 26.4 per cent of the world population and are reared very few are having considerable milk producing animal of the country. Goats are highly efficient in converting food stuff, live vegetation, grasses and leaves forage crops, agro-industrial waste and byproducts and even waste cereals unfit for the human consumption to edible milk. Goat milk possesses 19 amino acids in its protein. It has 11 fatty acids in its butter fat, 6 vitamins, 8 enzymes, 25 minerals, 1 sugar, 5 phosphorus compounds, 14 nitrogenous substances all of which are suspended or dissolved in the fluid milk. Goat milk is as close to perfect food as possible in nature. Its chemical structure is amazingly similar to mother’s milk.

Among the small ruminants, goat is perhaps the most useful animal providing milk as well as meat. It is also superior in converting the feeds to meat and other products in a short period than most of the other livestock (Pandit&Dhaka,2005). Goats contribute milk, meat, fiber, skins and manure to the subsistence of small holders and landless rural poor. Goat meat accounted for almost 37 per cent of the total meat production in the country (Chandra, 2002). Importance of goats lies in the fact that human population is increasing very rapidly creating increasing demands for animal protein foods on the one hand and the feed resources for large ruminants are decreasing due to shrinkage of grazing lands on the other.Goats make important economic contributions in India. They are so vital to a large human population that their contribution to national economy cannot be overlooked. Goats require relatively much lower investments and facilities in terms of housing, feed, labour and health care. There is quick pay of dues because of fast multiplication and early maturity. Further, the risk involved in goat farming is much lower compared to other livestock and crops production.In Gujarat state, Population of milch goat has shown increasing trend as it was 23.36 lakh in 1951 and in year 2019 it found 48.68 lakh, which shows 47.98%, increased. As per the previous livestock census i.e. 2012, goat population declined by 1.84 percent which shows goat farming should give emphasis to enhance rural farmer’s income.

In natural farming practices, the adoption of natural and indigenous hive designs aligns with values of sustainability, simplicity, and care for bee wellbeing. Unlike commercial systems that rely on uniform Langstroth hives for maximum honey production, natural beekeeping focuses on affordable, locally sourced, and non-intrusive hive models that support bees’ instinctive behaviors with minimal disruption.

These hives are constructed to replicate bees’ natural nesting environments, such as hollow trees or crevices in rocks. They offer suitable insulation, darkness, airflow, and internal structure that support the colony’s natural rhythm. Rather than prioritizing honey output, these hives are intended to promote the long-term health and stability of the bees. Typically, natural hives remain in a fixed position, allow bees to build immobile combs, and need fewer inspections, which helps reduce colony stress.

Such indigenous designs uphold the core ideals of natural farming—selfsufficiency, minimal interference, and ecological balance—while also making beekeeping more practical and inclusive for small-scale and resource-limited farmers.

Natural nutrient management in India marks a transition from synthetic fertilizers to sustainable, eco-friendly approaches that focus on improving soil fertility, crop yield, and environmental integrity. Rooted in traditional Indian agricultural wisdom, these practices are regaining importance due to their compatibility with natural farming principles, minimal reliance on external inputs, and enhancement of soil microbial activity.
A key method is the use of Jeevamrut, a fermented culture made using cow dung, cow urine, jaggery, pulse flour, and soil from field bunds. This mixture significantly boosts microbial activity in the soil, facilitating nutrient availability and decomposition of organic matter. It is applied directly to the soil or as a foliar spray and is known for improving nitrogen fixation and phosphorus release.
Ghanjeevamrut, a dry, solid variant of Jeevamrut, is used as a base application before sowing. It delivers a slow release of nutrients and is ideal for areas facing water shortages or crops requiring prolonged nourishment.
Panchagavya, another traditional bio-input, is a blend of five cow-derived products—milk, curd, ghee, urine, and dung—alongside banana, coconut water, jaggery, and water. Used mainly as a growth promoter, Panchagavya enhances germination, root development, and crop immunity, and is often applied as a foliar spray.
Green manuring using legumes such as sunhemp, dhaincha, and cowpea contributes significantly by adding organic nitrogen to the soil. These crops also improve soil aeration, structure, and moisture retention when incorporated into the soil.

India is an agricultural country and nearly 70% of its population is dependent directly or indirectly on agriculture and related activities. At present, about 173 million hectares of land is under agriculture of which about 143 million hectare are cultivated without fallow. Mounting pressures of teeming population and shrinking land (due to urbanization) have necessitated the production of increasingly more food per unit area. In the efforts to increase the food production and make the country self-sufficient in food grains, modern technology adopted since ‘Green Revolution’ in the middle sixties has paid a significant role. Higher yields in almost all crops were possible with exotic and high yielding genotypes and availability of seeds, heavy doses of fertilizers, frequent irrigation, labour and repeated applications of pesticides. However, several genotypes particularly hybrids proved to be susceptible to pests and disease pathogens. Insect-pests, diseases and weeds are important biotic-constraints inflicting 20-25% losses in agricultural production. Farmers were therefore compelled to use pesticides extensively and frequently.

Plant protection is an integral part of the crop production and pesticides proved to be valuable means in plant protection to ensure plenty food. However, some of the pesticides are highly hazardous and their residue remains undetected and posses risk to human safety and health. Moreover, the repeated and incorrect applications without following need-based criteria have resulted in several secondary side effects ². For instance, increased resistance of pests to insecticides, harmful to beneficial and non-target insects and animals, undesirable effects on crop plants and environmental hazards. Safety has become a major worry in factories and outside the working places. Besides these, repeated and heavy pesticide applications add to the cost of production and misery to farmer. These ill effects of synthetic pesticides have aroused interest in alternate methods of plant protection.

The R&D thrust in the pharmaceutical sector is focused on development of new drugs, innovative/indigenous processes for known drugs and development of plant based drugs through investigation of leads from the traditional systems of medicine. In addition, many nutraceuticals are being consumed from unregulated markets for their perceived benefits in health care and improvement of quality of life.

Natural pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals and cosmeceuticals are of great importance as a reservoir of chemical diversity aimed at new drug discovery and can be explored as potential antimicrobial, cardiovascular, immunosuppressive, and anticancer drugs. Around 80% of all such products are of plant origin; their sales exceeded $ 65 billion in 2003. Examples of plant products and derivatives used by the pharmaceutical industry include Paclitaxel, Vincristine, Vinblastine, Artemisinin, Camptothecin, Podophyllotoxin and such.

The nutraceutical marketplace in Europe is estimated to be $ 9 billion, while the US marketplace, estimated to be $10-12 billion in 2003, is expanding at a compounded rate of more than 20% per year. US Congress has fueled the rapid growth of nutraceuticals with the passage of the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) in 1994. Globally, there have been efforts to monitor quality and regulate the growing business of herbal drugs and traditional medicine.

ABSTRACT

Endophytes are microorganisms that live inside the host plant tissues without causing symptoms of disease. There has been a crescent interest in the prospecting of these microorganisms as sources of novel and bioactive natural products. In fact, a significant number of interesting natural products have been reported in the last years. In this chapter some aspects regarding the endophytes are detailed: the relationship with their host plants, isolation, preservation, taxonomy, cultivation, frequently isolated strains, tropical endophytes, novel structures isolated and also their biological activities.

Key words: natural product, endophytic fungi, plant fungus interaction, secondary metabolites.

1.    Thomas Malthus suggested that population growth _____________.

(a) Would eventually lead to starvation and death as it exceeded the land’s potential to produce food

(b) Would lead to strong and better societies

(c) Would grow at a slower rate than land’s potential to produce food

(d) And the land’s potential to produce food would grow at the same rate

2.    Which population growth rate is likely to add relatively more to younger age population (youth effect on size of labour force)?

(a) Larger

(b) Smaller

(c) Uncertain

(d) Population growth rate does not affect the age structure of population

Goat (Capra hircus) is a domesticated species of goat-antelope typically kept as livestock. It was domesticated from the wild goat (C. aegagrus) of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. It is one of the oldest domesticated species of animal, according to archaeological evidence that its earliest domestication occurred in Iran at 10,000 calibrated calendar years ago. Beginning approximately 10,000 years ago, Neolithic farmers in the Near East started keeping small herds of goats for both their meat and milk, as well as for clothing and building with the hair, bone, skin and power. Undoubtedly, goat farming at the time was natural resource based and is organic in nature. Mechanical (1880–1930) and chemical (1920–1950) revolutions in agriculture, significantly influenced the modern day livestock farming predominately in non-organic form. Biological advances in the genetically modified organisms in the 70s further complicated the researcher–producer–consumer dynamics. As of today, there are over 750 million goats scattered throughout the world. Goats are found in nearly every country on the planet and in nearly every climate, each one with a different purpose. There are more than a thousand adapted breeds in existence. Goats have been used for milk, meat, fur, and skins across much of the world.

Agricultural production systems depend on natural resources viz. land, water, biodiversity, forests, pastures and wildlife. Farm activities can also have major impacts on the quality and availability of these resources well beyond the boundaries of the production system. Although natural resources are critical to agricultural production, farm households also frequently depend on them to meet other needs, such as fuel, construction materials and supplemental foods. Thus rural livelihoods are intricately linked to the condition of natural resources. Over the last 40 years as food production has doubled, agricultural production systems have expanded, with significant impacts on the natural resource base:

Introduction

In the post-world trade organization (WTO) era, the fantastic imagination of “one world for self-reliance”, has been shattered by the Corona induced calamity and the expansionists approach of a few rouge nations. Though the global welfare and peace has always been part of Indian traditional philosophy, approach and the concept of self-reliance, the practical boundary of self-reliance in its present context, starts from the country level itself. The idea of self-reliance at multiple levels (individual, family, society, and nation) has driven human civilization for most of its efforts, inventions and actions across the world.

A very high dependency of a large number of population on the natural resources in the developing world calls for proper management of natural resources for self-reliance. Since the early days of civilization, natural resources in the form of land, soil, water, biodiversity and climate have remained the very basis of supporting and sustaining life of human beings, plants and animals on the earth. However, in recent times intensive use and over-exploitation of pristine resources have robbed them of their legendry resilience. To effectively tackle the complex problems and to fulfil basic needs of livelihood, food security, poverty, employment, equity and environmental services, efficient and judicious utilization of natural resources for enhanced and sustained productivity is a matter of serious concern for policy makers, planners, scientists, conservationists and environmentalists.

Introduction

Since the dawn of the civilization when mankind started agriculture, soil erosion has been the single largest environmental problem and has remained so till date (Sullivan, 2004). This is so because removal of the topsoil by any means has, through research and historical evidence, been severally shown to have many deleterious effects on the productive capacity of the soil as well as on ecological wellbeing. Doran and Parkin (1994) captioned the impact of soil erosion in their popular maxim that “the thin layer of soil covering the earth’s surface represents the difference between survival and extinction for most terrestrial life”. Soil degradation implies decline in its capacity to provide ecosystem services (ESs) of interest to humans and useful to nature’s functions. Principal processes of soil degradation are erosion, salinization, nutrient and carbon (C) depletion, drought, decline in soil structure, and tilth. Examples of ESs provided by soil include ecological/supporting (biomass production, nutrient cycling), regulating (water purification and flow, C sequestration, temperature fluctuations), provisional (food, fiber, fuel, and forages), and cultural (aesthetical, spiritual, and cultural). Erosion-induced degradation diminishes soil’s capacity to provide ESs, and support ecosystem functions.

Although fertile top soils could be lost when scraped by heavy machineries (Ngwu et al., 2005), the key avenues of topsoil loss include water erosion and wind erosion. Sometimes erosion can be such gradual for so long a time as to elude detection in one’s lifetime, thus making its adverse effects hard to detect. Eswaran et al., (2001) propose an annual loss of 75 billion tons of soil on a global basis which costs the world about US $400 billion per year. A review of the global agronomic impact of soil erosion identifies two severity groups of continents and reveals that Africa belongs to the more vulnerable group (Biggelaar et al., 2004). Soil erosion by water seems to be the greatest factor limiting soil productivity and impeding agricultural enterprise in the entire humid tropical region. This is evident in many regions of Africa (Dregne, 1990), mainly in the humid and subhumid zones of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) where population pressure and deforestation exacerbate the situation and the rains come as torrential downpours, with the annual soil loss put at over 50 t ha⁻¹ (FAO, 1995).

In simple words natural resources can be defined as any part of our environment such as land, air, minerals, forest, rangeland, wild life, fish and human beings.

The sum total of all physical, chemical, biological and social factors which compose the surroundings of man is referred to as environment and each component of these surroundings constitute a “resource”.  The natural resources are land, water, air, minerals, forests, rangeland, wild life or even human beings known as natural resource.

The five basic natural resources are energy, matter, space, time and diversity.

1. INTRODUCTION

The paradigm of world’s livelihood is built on the basic foundation of natural resources which includes humans, plants, animals, soils and minerals, water and air. But the very livelihood of these resources are at stake because they are strongly linked and dependant on each other. And to add, the material resource namely ‘economy’ has invaded the tranquil habitat and life of the community of natural resources. Thus the present crisis is challenging livelihood of each of these natural resources whether it is human, plant or water or earth and the element of economy is interfering with the natural recourse of human depending on water and soil; and human, plant, animal together are depending on soil, water and air. But when the livelihood of soil, water and air is at stake how human, plant and animal can survive; hence the design of livelihood of world has the essential ingredients of all natural resources.

We humans are selfish and concerned about our livelihood security only and try to over-exploit other natural resources and assumed themselves as the master of all natural resources. Practically, there is war going on between and among natural resources. The world could be better if each natural resource has its own right with prospects to safeguard its livelihood and all resources together with better livelihood could offer the lively world.

2. UTILIZATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

We should underscore that none of the natural resources are in ‘plenty’ and that we should ‘economize’ on each natural resource to build together the world’s livelihood. The food security of humans can not be attained without plants and plant security can nor be achieved without soil and water and it is impossible to keep secured soil and water without economics of management.

In short, the livelihood security of humans is entirely dependant on all other natural resources coupled with the material resource economy. It is incumbent on us to initiate appropriate steps from gross root to policy levels to make the world better.

Conservation has always been one of the most important applications of ecology.Unfortunately, the term “conservation” suggest “hoarding”, as if the idea were simply to ration static supplies so that there would be some left for the future. In the eye of the general public the “conservationist” is too often presumed to be an antisocial person who is against any kind of “development”. What the real conservationist is  against  is unplanned  development  that breaks  ecological  as  well as human laws. The true aim of conservation, is two fold–
    
(1)     To ensure the  preservation of a  quality  environment that considers esthetic and recreational as well as product needs; and  
    
(2)     To ensure as continuous yield of useful plants, animals and materials by establishing a balanced cycle of harvest and renewal.

Forests are valuable renewable resources for humanity on Earth. The country’s forest cover has been estimated to comprise 19.39% of its entire geographical area. Forests consist primarily of trees that offer wood that can be transformed into solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels. Forests play a crucial role in regulating the Earth’s temperature by serving as carbon dioxide filters. They provide habitats and shelters for numerous species and also contribute to the visual beauty of the environment. Forests supply the necessary resources for a range of wood related industries, including pulp and paper, composite wood, rayon and other synthetic fibers, sporting goods, furniture, boat
construction, and matches. Timber plays a crucial role in the construction of buildings.Various products, such as bamboos, resins, gums, oils, fibers, medicines, katha, lac, shellac, etc., are derived from forests.
The country’s forest cover has been calculated to be 637,293 square kilometers, accounting for 19.39% of the country’s total geographic area. This falls short of the stipulated requirement, which is 30% of the entire land area. The geographic region is comprised of 11.48% dense forest, 7.76% open forest, and 0.15% mangrove. World Forest Day is observed on March 21st, while National Forest Day is celebrated on September 11th.

Introduction

According to FAO estimates, about 50% total geographical area in India is under various degraded hazards and about 2.1 million ha of land is getting degraded and deforested annually (Sehgal et al., 1998). Out of that underground water in arid and semi-arid areas is saline or sodic in nature. While spices, medicinal and aromatic plants may be a boon for these areas, which not only withstand under adverse conditions but also could be productive and helps in mitigating these problems. However, other crops are remain less or unproductive in these areas.

“Natural” means an ecosystem not influenced by man and resources means that reserve stock of supply which living things can take from nature for sustenance of life. In reference to man, natural resources can be defined as those natural reserve stocks of supply which man utilizes for his sustenance and welfare. The reservoirs of natural resources are the sun,  the  atmosphere,  the  lithosphere  and the  hydrosphere.  Natural resources include energy, air, water, soil, minerals, plants and animals. The nature of resource depends upon many factors such as scientific and technological development of the society, profession of that particular society, and culture.

Natural resources are the resources present naturally in the environment. These resources are used by human being for their survival. Minerals, building stones, forests, and various energy resources are known as natural resources. Natural resources have been extracted and utilized since ancient times but as the population increased, the demand of natural resources are increasing day by day.

Natural soil health management plays a crucial role in ensuring longterm productivity, resilience, and environmental sustainability. One of the key practices in natural farming for maintaining soil health is the use of Jeevamrutha, a fermented microbial culture prepared using cow dung, cow urine, jaggery, pulse flour, and a small quantity of local soil. When applied to fields, Jeevamrutha acts as a catalytic agent that stimulates biological activity in the soil, promoting the growth of beneficial microbes that enhance nutrient cycling and improve soil fertility. It is typically applied once every 15 days to maintain microbial balance.
Another important technique is mulching, where dry or green plant biomass is spread over the soil surface. Mulching helps retain soil moisture, reduces erosion, and regulates soil temperature. As the mulch decomposes, it adds organic matter to the soil, improving soil texture, aeration, and water-holding capacity. Mulching also supports the proliferation of earthworms and soil microbes, which are essential for a healthy soil ecosystem.
Crop rotation and intercropping are practiced to maintain soil fertility and disrupt pest and disease cycles. By alternating deep-rooted and shallow-rooted plants, nutrients are used efficiently and naturally replenished. Intercropping with legumes enriches the soil with nitrogen through biological nitrogen fixation, further supporting soil health.
Natural farming avoids or minimizes tillage to prevent disturbance of the soil’s natural structure and microbial life. Minimal tillage helps maintain soil aggregates and protects the habitats of soil-dwelling organisms, ensuring the soil ecosystem remains intact.

Plants and many agro-industrial by-products incorporated into livestock diets may harbor a range of anti-nutritional compounds. These substances can adversely affect optimal nutrition by deactivating specific nutrients, obstructing the digestive process, or diminishing the metabolic efficiency of feed, ultimately leading to negative consequences for animal health and productivity. The naturally occurring plant compounds found in feed that disrupt feed utilization (FCR), lower production levels, and compromise animal health are referred to as anti-nutritional factors. Additionally, natural toxicants present in feed can hinder the absorption and utilization of nutrients in livestock. Therefore, it is essential to implement effective detoxification methods for these feed materials to mitigate toxic effects and ensure their safe incorporation into animal diets. A foundational understanding of these toxicants is crucial prior to undertaking detoxification and subsequent use in livestock feeding.
Natural toxicants can be categorized based on their chemical properties into several groups: Proteins, Glycosides, Phenols, and Miscellaneous toxicants. The chemical characteristics, pathogenic effects, and detoxification strategies for these compounds are briefly outlined below.
Proteins
1. Protease inhibitors: Protease inhibitors are prevalent throughout the plant kingdom, particularly in the seeds of many cultivated legumes. These inhibitors possess the capability to obstruct the function of proteolytic enzymes in the gastrointestinal systems of animals. Specifically, trypsin inhibitors form irreversible complexes with trypsin, rendering the enzyme unable to fulfill its role in protein digestion. This interaction prompts the intestine to secrete cholecystokinin, which in turn stimulates pancreatic enlargement. The presence of trypsin inhibitors in raw soybean can hinder the availability of methionine, leading to adverse effects in young chickens fed raw soybean meal,
including pancreatic hypertrophy, reduced growth rates, gallbladder contraction and increased bile acid excretion, similar to observations in other monogastric animals. In contrast, ruminants can effectively utilize untreated leguminous seeds. Consequently, the amino acids that would typically be released by trypsin are not reabsorbed, leading to their loss when trypsin interacts with these inhibitors. These substances, which are proteinaceous in nature, hinder the activity of certain digestive enzymes, ultimately impairing the growth and performance of non-ruminant animals. High concentrations of protease inhibitors are found in various leguminous seeds, such as soybean, kidney bean and mung bean. There are two primary types of protease inhibitors: a) Kunitz inhibitors, which possess a single active site that binds exclusively to trypsin and b) Bowman-Birk inhibitors, which contain two active sites that can bind both trypsin and chymotrypsin, thereby inhibiting both enzymes. Detoxification: These protease inhibitors are primarily heat-sensitive and appropriate heat treatment of leguminous seeds-such as roasting, toasting, popping, autoclaving (at 120°C and 15 lbs psi for 20 minutes), and cooking-can effectively inactivate them. It is important to avoid overheating during these processes.

Natural farming for vegetable cultivation is steadily gaining popularity in India due to its eco-friendly methods, affordability, and health benefits. This system
excludes the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and genetically modified seeds, instead relying on time-tested ecological techniques and locally sourced inputs. Common vegetables grown under this method include tomato, brinjal, okra, chilli, leafy greens, and gourds.
The focus of natural farming is on enriching soil health and encouraging microbial activity, which supports healthy plant development. Inputs like Jeevamrit—a blend of cow dung, cow urine, jaggery, gram flour, and soil—boost soil microbes and improve nutrient absorption. Beejamrit is applied to seeds to guard against soil-borne pathogens. Mulching using dry leaves or plant residues helps maintain moisture, regulate soil temperature, and reduce weed growth, thereby creating ideal conditions for vegetable growth.
Pests are managed using natural remedies like Agniastra, Brahmastra, and herbal formulations made from neem, garlic, ginger, and chillies. These treatments are environmentally safe and do not harm beneficial insects or soil fauna.
Practices such as crop rotation and intercropping with legumes help enrich the soil with nitrogen and interrupt pest cycles. Seasonal vegetable planting tailored to local climate and soil conditions improves resilience and reduces the need for inputs. Raised beds and drip irrigation are often employed to improve water efficiency. While yields

8.1 INTRODUCTION

Natural methods of vegetative propagation include strategies that the plants have developed for self-multiplication or perpetuation. Natural vegetative propagation is mostly a process found in herbaceous and woody perennial plants, and typically involves structural modifications of the stem, although any horizontal, underground part of a plant (whether stem, leaf, or root) can contribute to vegetative reproduction of a plant. In crops like ginger, turmeric, onion, garlic, gladioli, and dahlia etc. they continue to grow from buds that are present on the surface of the stem. In some plants, like sweet potato adventitious roots can give rise to new plants. In Bryophyllum and Kalanchoe, the leaves have small buds on their margins. On detachment from the plant, they are able to grow into independent plants and they may also start growing into free plants if their leaves were made to grow in the soil. In nature, vegetative reproduction occurs through underground stems, sub-aerial stems, bulbils, leaves and even roots.

INTRODUCTION

Agricultural biodiversity is the basis ofglobal food security. Wide variety of crops, soil and cropping systems are nurtured by human culturaldiversity since times immemorial. Potatois a majorfood crop which is widely acknowledged now. It is consumed by the world’s largest population than any othervegetable, produces more calories and protein per unit of land and time than any other food crop.Potatohas much potentialfor sustainable, non-chemical farming, fits well with many crop rotations,and does very wellwith naturalfertilizers. Over the years chemical based farming has started experiencing reduced production and increased costs, orboth (Singh et al.,2011 and Sreenivasa et al., 2010). Monoculture of crops such as rice, wheat and cotton etc., depletes topsoil of nutrients and reduces diversity of beneficial microbes leading to reduced soil productivity. It is finally making the crop plants vulnerable to parasites and pathogens. Environmental pollution caused bychemical fertilizers and pesticides is posinga serious threat worldwide (Doranet al., 1996). Healthy soil is the foundation upon which sustainable agriculture is built. Farming practices differ mainly based on soil inputs and crop protection measures (Devarinti,2016).Thusthere is growinginterestinorganicallyproducedproducts and farmers are shifting from conventional to organic farming. In India, Sikkim is the firststate where completelyorganic farmingis adopted. Farming practices differ mainly based on soil inputs and crop protection measures (Devarinti, 2016) in different regions. Different types of farming based on use of natural products are described in the chapter.

Definition

• If a communication source decodes the message that he encodes, if the mes- sage is put back to his system, we have a feedback.

Berlo (1960)

• Feedback is defined as the action reaction interdependence in communica- tion.

• The return to the input of a part of the output is the feedback.

• Feedback is the reaction on the part of the receiver to a sender’s communi- cation.

2.1 Roots and the Rhizosphere

The rhizosphere, the region of soil surrounding plant roots in which soil and microbes closely interact–plays an important role in soil carbon cycling. The rhizosphere is only about 1-2% of Earth’s soil volume but can store up to 30-40% of Earth’s total soil organic matter. Plants secrete organic compounds such as amino acids or enzymes known as root exudates, which are key in recruiting and selecting relevant beneficial microbes to colonize in the rhizosphere (Julie Bobyock, 2023). Studying these microbial-plant interactions is critical to better understand the relationship between plant growth and the role soils play in keeping carbon from the atmosphere. It is the region that is a few distances (2-80 mm) extended from the root system. Rhizosphere zone is the region of intense microbial activity, and it is isolated from the bulk soil that often called as Edaphosphere or Non-rhizosphere.

Plant growth results from interaction of roots and shoots with the environment. The environment for roots is the soil or planting medium, and its importance is often not appreciated beyond the physical and nutritional aspects. Roots do provide structural support for the plant, and they absorb water and nutrients, but they also produce plant growth-regulating substances, such as cytokinins. The cortex of the root is largely starch storage tissue, and represents a transition zone from the soil to the stele. The cortex also provides a niche to be occupied by mycorrhizal fungi. It is not as generally appreciated, however, that roots also support the growth and functions of a complex of microorganisms that can have a profound effect on the growth and survival of plants. These microbes interact in the soil around the root that is influenced by root exudates; this zone is called the rhizosphere. The effects of rhizosphere microorganisms on plant growth or health often are ignored unless the microbes weaken or kill the plant through disease. There are, however, beneficial interactions that can occur and be enhanced if actively managed by the grower. Establishment and maintenance of rhizosphere microbial populations is a dynamic process affected by age and kind of plant, nature and treatment of soil, environmental factors, foliar applications of chemicals, and interactions of microorganisms. It is important to remember that selective or preferential development of rhizosphere populations occurs in the early stages of plant growth and root development when root exudation is maximal but, thereafter, is altered and maintained at some microbial equilibrium by both microbial and plant activity, with both being influenced by edaphic and other environmental factors.

The sun is a hot ball of glowing gases at the heart of the solar system. Its radiant energy is practically the only energy source to the earth. Very small and insignificant quantities of energy are available from other sources such as the interior of the earth, the moon, and other stars. Without the sun’s intense energy and heat, there would be no life on earth.

PROPERTIES OF SOLAR RADIATION

The mean distance of the sun from the earth, also known as one astronomical unit (1 AU), is approximately 1.496 × 10⁸ km, though the distance varies as the earth revolves round the sun in an elliptical orbit. At this average distance, light travels from the sun to earth in about 8 minutes and 19 seconds. The energy of the sunlight supports almost all life on earth by photosynthesis, and drives earth’s climate and weather. The minimum sun-earth distance is about 0.983 AU and the maximum is approximately 1.017 AU. The earth is at its closest point to the sun (perihelion) on around January 3 and at its farthest point (aphelion) on around July 4.

The sun makes up about 99.86% of the mass of the entire solar system. The visible disk or photosphere has a radius of 6.599 × 10⁵ km, and the solar mass is 1.989 × 10³⁰ kg. The sun is a completely gaseous body. The chemical composition (by mass) of the outer layers of sun is 71% hydrogen, 26.5% helium, and 2.5% heavier elements like oxygen, carbon, neon, and iron among others. Since the sun is not a solid body, different parts of the sun rotate at different rates. At the equator, the sun spins once about every 25 earth days, but at its poles the sun rotates once on its axis every 36 days.

ABSTRACT

The law of intellectual property has assumed utmost importance the World over, in the recent past and it is being considered as one of the most important subjects of law in view of its implications on economic, social and cultural realms. The term “intellectual property” has come to be internationally recognized as covering, patents, industrial designs, copyrights, trademarks, know-how and confidential information or trade secrets. This paper presents an overview on nature and scope of these elements of IPR.

Introduction

The animals which man has domesticated over the years to meet his own needs for food, clothing, power or companionship include cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, horses, pigs, cats, dogs and poultry. Domestic animals like most other animal forms existing on earth including human beings, are the result of a long evolution and therefore each other and indeed to all living beings. Much has been learned or better understood about the physiology of these animals through comparative study on the other animal forms, though many a time these animals have served as experimental models for studies designed to gain knowledge about human physiology. Dog and goat for a long time yielded to such experimentation. The domestic animals have been used for obtaining information on their physiology per se only recently and most experiments have been designed to understand better the mechanisms related to production potential of these animals in terms of meat, milk and wool. Knowledge is also gained by the study of sick and abnormal individuals or through surgery. Animal ethology (study of behaviour) is a comparatively recent discipline which has contributed abundantly to our understanding of the behaviour of animals in relation to their productivity.

The place of domestic animals in nature is objectively described by placing them along with other living organisms in the accepted scheme of classification as formulated by the biologists. The domestic animals belong to the Animal Kingdom, which like the plant kingdom, is divided into a number of major categories, the Phyla. The animal Phyla range from the relatively simple protozoa mostly single celled forms, to the chordata which encompasses backboned animals, including domestic animals and human beings. This scheme of classification is based on the concept of evolution of life and the animals are classified on the basis of closeness or the distance of their relationship. The life cycle of the animal (Ontogeny) is said to repeat the evolutionary development of the animal (Phylogeny).

The domestic animals belong to the phylum Chordata, sub phylum Vertebrata, characterised by the presence of a back bone or vertebral column. They are further classified to belong to class Mammalia and sub class Eutheria. The cow, buffaloes, goat, sheep etc. belong to order Ungulata in sub class Eutheria. The horse and asses belong to order Perissodactyla. The cats and dogs belong to order Carnivora. The poultry belong to the order Galliformes in Class Aves.

The word physiology initially meant for that branch of biology which deals with the function of living organisms.Physiology can be defined as the study of mechanisms of body functions. Physiology is concerned with the way the various systems of the body function and the way each contributes to the functions of the body as a whole.Thus, physiology not only seeks to define the functions of living organisms like feeding, digestion, respiration, transport of gases in the blood, circulation and functions of the heart, excretion and kidney functions, muscle and movement, reproduction etc but also seeks to answer to ‘why’ and ‘how’ all these functions are regulated.

Economics and Reasonability

The four primary economic activities of production, distribution, consumption, and resource management are what we referred to as economic actors or economic agents in Chapter 1. Individuals, small groupings (such as a family or a group of roommates), as well as big businesses like the government or international corporations, can all engage as economic agents. Economics is the study of these actors’ actions and interactions during economic transactions. This chapter examines how people behave as independent economic players. We analyse this subject’s ramifications for economic theory and examine both historical and recent research on it.

Perspectives from History on Economic Behavior

A social science, economics is concerned with people and how we arrange ourselves to meet our wants and improve our well-being. All economic behaviour is ultimately just human behaviour. Even though institutional factors can sometimes appear to gain control (as evidenced by some bureaucracies’ propensity to grow over time), if you look closely at economic outcomes

Our nature is the greatest or only laboratory where a large number of events are occurring at every fraction of a second - there are so many events, creatures, miseries taking place in the nature. Rightly it is considered an unparallel and biggest laboratory, man has ever witnessed. However, understanding it’s any event requires deep devotion and understanding,then only success will come. Our Philosopher and Poet Kabirdas has understood these facts as have reflected in his various couplets “Jin khoja tin paiya, gahre pani paith” or “chalti chaki dekh kar diya kabira roye, do patan ke beech main sabit bacha na koi“. For an ordinary person earth is still flat and he may not know the reasons for change of seasons.

Abstract

The percentage of people with obesity and diabetes has increased globally both in developed and developing countries but highest burden is on the indigenous people who are also socially disadvantaged. The modern medical treatment of diabetes is based generally on oral hypoglycaemic agents and insulin. So, there has always been a search for new anti-diabetic agents which are of lower cost and can cure the disease without harming other body functions. Plants being readily available in the Indian-subcontinent have been an important source of drug in the traditional system of medicine in India since time immemorial. The utilization of plants for alternative treatment to combat diabetes using herbal remedies has also been substantiated by World Health Organization. In this communication, we tried to list some scientifically proven anti-diabetic plants commonly available in the Indian subcontinent which can be used in the treatment and management of diabetes.

Introduction

Agricultural organic waste residues pose a significant challenge in India, generating approximately 700 million tonnes annually, with agri-residue trash reaching around 998 million tonnes per year (Kannan and Kallapiran, 2022; FAO, 2022). These wastes, including sugarcane bagasse, paddy and wheat straw, husk, vegetable and food waste, jute fibers, crop stalks, and other materials, often face improper disposal methods such as burning or dumping, which contribute to environmental pollution and health hazards (Singh et al., 2020; Sharma and Patel, 2019). Proper management and treatment of agricultural waste are crucial for sustainable agriculture and environmental protection (Kumar et al., 2021). Composting is a cost-effective biological treatment that converts these residues into valuable resources like plant nutrients, reducing the carbon-to-nitrogen (C:N) ratio and enhancing soil productivity (Kannan and Kallapiran, 2022; Gupta et al., 2020). Aerobic microbes play a key role in breaking down complex organic materials during the composting process, leading to ecological succession of microbial communities. This transformation can be measured through various quality and stability indicators, such as the C:N ratio, temperature, pH, moisture content, and the presence of pathogens like coliform bacteria (FAO, 2012; Patel and Verma, 2021).

Introduction
Three districts of South Gujarat i.e., Surat, Navsari and Valsad are front-runners in horticulture cultivation. These are also part of an agri-export zone for fruits and vegetables. But, the life of these fruit- farmers was made miserable by tiny fruit fly which is a major pest of mango, sapota and cucurbits. Intensity of damage recorded was as high as over 30 per cent in mango and sapota, and between 20-40 per cent in cucurbitaceous vegetables. Fruit flies cause heavy damage in terms of quality and quantity to the farmers every year. Insecticidal sprays, control infestation little bit, but they are not only uneconomical but they leave residual effect much above tolerance limit, adversely affecting the prospects of export of such fruits and vegetables. Fruit flies are a modern-day pestilence which ravage production. These flies, moreover, are good fliers and therefore their spread is extensive. Hence, area wide adoption of management strategy is required. Male Annihilation Technique (MAT), an Integrated Pest Management Technique (IPM), which uses sexual lures to capture males of fruit flies and kill them, is the only way to control growth and spread of fruit flies. This however, requires a community approach for implementation. Navsari Agricultural University designed, developed and commercialized an eco-friendly, economical and easily adoptable fruit fly trap popularly known as “Nauroji-Stonehouse Fruit Fly Trap”. The trap uses Methyl Eugenol and Cue lure as par pheromones well-known for fruit flies. In this trap, plywood blocks are soaked in the solution of lures + solvent + insecticide. Such traps remain effective for 5 to 6 months, which cover the entire fruiting period in mangos, sapota as well as cucurbitaceous vegetables and no recharge is necessary. It is eco- friendly, economical and easily adoptable. It was decided to adopt this technology and spread it in the Surat- Navsari- Valsad belt for controlling and managing the fruit fly problem. It was also recognized that wide area adoption would help in developing this zone as a Pest Free Area (PFA). The project was taken up under RKVY.
About the Technology Addressed and Extension Management Practices
Nauroji-Stonehouse Fruits Fly Traps are prepared in food quality Testing Laboratory, NAU Navsari. Six talukas viz, Gandevi, Chikhali, Valsad, Pardi, Dharampur and Kaprada of Navsari and Valsad districts were selected for the purpose. A block of orchards in each village in each Taluka was selected for first year implementation. Other blocks were selected during the following years.

Technological change and innovation are fundamental forces shaping our lifestyles, culture, and futures. We devote a substantial proportion of our wealth to research activities that span all areas of society, including agriculture. This investment, particularly in agricultural research, aims primarily to create wealth and conserve natural resources. The returns on our investment in agricultural research—the wealth created and resources conserved—depend significantly on the extent to which primary producers adopt the products of that research.

Maximizing the return on our investment in agricultural research involves identifying which research products are likely to be adopted by primary producers and by how many, as well as determining the processes required to ensure the rapid diffusion of research products among producers. This requires a deep understanding of how research products can better meet the needs of primary producers in their agricultural enterprises.

1. Introduction

Traditionally, libraries were considered book storage facilities for kings and other prominent members of society. However, the idea of conventional libraries was altered with the advent of ICT.The development of the Internet, the World Wide Web, and information technology (IT) are assisting in increasing f inancing for studies on creating, accessing, and administeringelectronic information resources. As a result, a new era of digital and virtual libraries has emerged. These technological developments have made it possible for a new generation of information professionals to successfully select, organize, retrieve, and communicate digital content to their target audience (Nazim & Saraf, n.d.). The concept emerged again when computers were connected to tremendous networks to create education and research cantered on creating digital libraries accessible to anybody all over the World. Terms like "virtual library", "electronic library", "library without walls”,and "digital library" have been used to characterize this broad concept (Cleveland, n.d.). Digital Libraries are enormous collections of organized information resources. Elegant “Digital Library” software can enable everyone to perceive, organize, develop, and disseminate new information collection.Libraries have long been seen as safeguards of information, having developed over centuries from private repositories of manuscripts to community centres teeming with activity and education. This evolution has accelerated in the digital age, forcing libraries to negotiate the challenging flows of digital evolution.

Nitrovasodilators are pharmaceutically key signalling molecule in the cardiovascular, immune and central nervous systems, and crucial steps in the regulation of NO bioavailability in health and diseases. These agents are well characterized and responsible for vasodilation by donation of nitric oxide (NO), and are principally employed for the treatment and prevention of angina pectoris, several cardiac diseases and regulation of vascular homeostasis (Carlstrom et al., 2024). NO has also been implicated in the pathology of many inflammatory diseases, including arthritis, myocarditis, colitis, and nephritis and a large number of pathologic conditions such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, cancer, diabetes, and neurodegenerative diseases. Several alternative strategies to increase NO signalling in the cardiovascular system have recently emerged, with promising therapeutic potential (Lundberg eta al., 2015). Nitroglycerin is commonly used in the treatment of angina pectoris because of its ability to decrease myocardial oxygen consumption. The use of nitroglycerin in the treatment of angina pectoris began not long after its original synthesis in 1847. Since then, the discovery of nitric oxide as a biological effector and better understanding of its roles in vasodilation, cell permeability, platelet function, inflammation, and other vascular processes have advanced our knowledge of the hemodynamic (mostly mediated through vasodilation of capacitance and conductance arteries) and nonhemodynamic effects of organic nitrate therapy, via both nitric oxide–dependent and –independent mechanisms (Divakaran and Loscalzo, 2017). These encompasses the identification of new pathways for enhancing NO synthase activity; ways to amplify the nitrate–nitrite–NO pathway; novel classes of NO-donating drugs; drugs that limit NO metabolism through effects on reactive oxygen species (Lundberg et al., 2015; Roy et al., 2023). Apart from the organic nitrates, direct activators of soluble guanylate cyclase, L-arginine, phosphodiesterase inhibitors and some other drugs also play critical role in vasoprotection (Gewaltig and Kojda, 2002).

Introduction

The integration of the Internet of Things (IoT) into the fisheries sector repre sents a significant advance toward modernizing an industry critical to global food security and economic stability. This chapter highlights the comprehensive exploration of the role of IoT technology in fisheries, its applications, implications and the challenges faced by fish farmers in adopting it.

Background and Context of IoT in Fisheries Sector

The fisheries industry, with its complex web of marine ecosystems and global supply chains, has long been characterized by fundamental interactions between humans and the environment. As the global population grows and consumer demand for seafood increases, the need for sustainable, efficient and technologically advanced fishing practices is becoming increasingly important (Prapti et al., 2022). This is where IoT introduces an innovative range of devices and solutions to meet the emerging demands of the sector.

Overview of IoT Applications in Fisheries

IoT technology opens up a box of possibilities in the fisheries sector. Real time monitoring of marine conditions, vessel tracking and fleet management, aquaculture optimization, supply chain management and predictive analytics are among the primary applications explored in this chapter. By analyzing these applications, we show how IoT increases the efficiency and sustainability of the fishing industry.

1. The process of directing or conducting the movement of vessel one place to another place is known as navigation.

2. Controlling the ship is known as seamanship.

3. VHF used up to 25 nautical miles.

4. Speed of sound wave 322m/sec.

5. Speed of radio wave 3x10 m/sec.

6. Navigation derived from latin word.

7. Earliest form of navigation is piloting.

8. Dead reckoning is rough method only.

9. Radio navigation also known as electronic piloting.

10. World chart produced by Gerardus Mercator.

Introduction
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is increasingly recognised as a “silent pandemic,” threatening global health and development. In 2019 alone, bacterial AMR was directly responsible for 1.27 million deaths and contributed to nearly 5 million more worldwide. Projections warn that by 2050, unchecked AMR could result in 10 million annual deaths and impose a staggering economic burden of USD 100 trillion. A major driver of this crisis is the indiscriminate and often prophylactic use of antibiotics in livestock production systems, which account for a majority of global antimicrobial consumption. The One Health framework—emphasising the interconnectedness of animal, human, and environmental health—offers a strategic pathway for mitigating AMR. It requires dismantling sectoral silos and fostering collaboration among veterinarians, physicians, public health authorities, food safety regulators, and environmental scientists. Against this backdrop, NDDB has positioned itself as a frontrunner in India by embedding One Health principles into large-scale field programmes. Since 2014, NDDB has progressively promoted alternative medicine for bovine mastitis control under its Mastitis Conrol Project (MCP), subsequently expanding in 2017–18 into a broader Disease Control through Alternate Methods (DCAM) project with Ethnoveterinary Medicine (EVM) as the central pillar.
Building Up: From DCAM to DISHA as One Health Strategy
Building on the successes of MCP, DCAM, and BCP, NDDB launched the Dairy Integrated Safety and Health Action (DISHA) project for 2025–2030, DISHA consolidates NDDB’s One Health strategy by combining animal health management, zoonotic disease surveillance, and food safety monitoring. Its objectives include: managing bovine cases with EVM, organising farmer awareness programmes, training veterinarians and health workers, screening cattle as well as their owner for brucellosis, and testing bulk milk samples for aflatoxins and antibiotic residues. Importantly, DISHA also addresses emerging food system contaminants such as microplastics, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAs), Bisphenol-A (BPA) and heavy metals, thereby broadening the scope of One Health beyond infectious diseases.

Infra red (IR) spectroscopy is an analytical technique that serves both qualitativeandquantitativedetectionoforganicconstituents.NearInfraRed spectroscopy (NIRS) is actually a regression technique. Its predictions are based on correlations between spectral information (light absorption) and reference data fed to the spectroscopy. The principle of a NIRS machine is that a feedstuff is illuminated with light of a specific and known frequency (or wavelength) in the near infrared region. The chemical bonds in organic molecules absorb or emit infrared light when their vibrational state changes. In the near IR part of the spectrum, large changes in vibrational state are observed (overtones). In the near IR, ‘overtones’ are observed (larger than expected energy transitions that occur when molecules get ‘over excited’) resulting in broad, less well defined peaks.The characteristics of these peaks make quantification difficult as the areas of the peaks are difficult to determine and,typically,indirect (statistical) technique have to be applied to obtain usable data.Water and the C-H bonds absorb strongly in the near IR region,as do the N-H and O-H bonds,but most other have only a weak peak or none at all. The absorption of light by the feedstuff is then measured as thedifferencebetweentheamountoflightemittedbytheNIRSmachineand the amount of light reflected by the sample. Modern equipment typically uses monochromators, specially constructed mirrors that reflect light in a wavelength-dependent manner, thus allowing exposure of the sample to a single wavelength at a time. This allows samples to be scanned over the entire near IR region (they are also referred to as scanning instruments). However, as the monochromator relies on mechanical positioning of the mirror for its wavelength accuracy, the spectra generated are less reproducible from machine to machine.

Samples those are relatively transparent, such as most gases and liquids, can be assayed easily from the light transmitted (transmittance). For opaque solid samples, however, many problems arise. IR light can only travel through a few microns of opaque material. A few microns, however, can be very difficult to work with, especially when the non-homogeneous nature of most agricultural products is considered. Thus, the major challenge in applying IR spectroscopy to solid samples is sample presentation. For this technique, the sample is put into a cup and illuminated with IR light. This light can have three different fates; it can be reflected off the surface of the sample, it can enter the sample where it may be absorbed if it encounters a bond that matches the light’s frequency or, if it does not encounter such a bond, it can bounce back out of the sample. The light bounced back (or reflected) from the sample is captured and its intensity measured.