eChapters

Introduction

Nucleotide and protein sequences construct the core of Bioiformatics. These biological sequences form complex and very large datasets. Various Statistical techniques have been used for analysis and extraction of precise information form small as well as large biological datasets. Evolution and natural selection makes biological sequences redundant and statistically biased. Once the mechanisms involved in such biases have been characterized, their analysis and systematic investigation become valuable tools for use in predicting the properties of other biological sequences. This biased nature results in relative codon usage value among the synonymous codons or Relative Synonymous Codon Usage (RSCU) value. Codon usage variation within a single genome can be an important source of information about gene expression levels and events of horizontal gene transfer (Medigue et al., 1991). The analysis of codon usage patterns can be traced back to when first molecular sequence databases were being colleted (Grantham et al., 1981). In order to evaluate the codon and amino acid usage variation, multivariate analysis options like Correspondence Analysis, Principal Component Analysis, Cluster Analysis, Factor Analysis, Multidimensional Scaling and Eigenanalysis Ordination are available (Morrison et al., 1994). It is well established that codon usage by its nature is multivariate. These methods provide a low dimensional point representation of genes, where the proximity of gene specific points indicates (CoA) a similar codon usage of associated genes. Correspondence Analysis is an exploratory graphical approach that requires contingency tables and generates results in the form of tables, scattered plots and graphs. CoA can identify the major sources of variation in the dataset. The output from a CoA can be used to evaluate other aspects of genes, such as base composition, expressivity, aromaticity and location on the genome (Thiouse et al. 1997).

Corynebacterium diptheriae was first observed by Klebs in 1883 and described in details by Loeffler in 1884. So it is also known as ‘Klebs-Loeffler bacillus’. In 1888, Nocard isolated a similar type of bacteria from cases of bovine farcy. In 1894, Preisz described it completely and revealed its similarities with the diphtheria bacilli. Latter it was named as Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis (Preisz-Nocard bacillus). Bollinger (1890) first reported C. renale from the cases of pyelonephritis in cows. Magnusson (1923) first described C. equi (Rhodococcus equi) form suppurative pneumonia of a foal.

Properties of genus

1.   Morphology

Corynebacterium are gram positive, pleomorphic bacteria ranging from coccoid to filamentous rods. The size varies from 0.5-0.6 µm by 1.0- 3.0 µm. Some of the species appear as packets of parallel cells (palisade arrangement) or show ‘V’ shaped form (Chinese letter arrangement) in the microscopic field (Fig.1and Fig.2). The cell wall peptidoglycan contains meso-diaminopimelic acid (meso-DAP). The arabinose and galactose are major cell wall sugars. Short-chain mycolic acids (corynomycolic acids, 22–36 carbon atoms) are present. This kind of cell wall structure is impermeable to the hydrophilic compounds. However, the ‘porin’ present in the cell wall sometimes helps in import of the hydrophilic substances. Mycolic acid containing cell wall helps in intracellular survival within the macrophages. Corynebacterium is non acid fast, non-sporulating, non-capsulated and non-motile bacteria (except C. aquaticum)
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Abstract: Cosmos, popular as garden annual in many parts of the world, has its origin in Mexico. Cosmos is cross pollinating and progeny can segregate widely for traits due to heterozygosity. Self and cross incompatibility, self and intersterility, limited fertility, reproductive barriers and seed sterility often pose significant challenges to breeders. The breeding objectives include development of suitable indoor plants, less susceptible to powdery mildew and more tolerant to abiotic stress. The biotechnological skills can be attempted in breeding.

Keywords: Breeding, self incompatibility, sterility, hybrid seed production.

Cosmos is a flowering plant belongs to family Asteraceae. Cosmos bipinnatus is ornamentally important species grown for garden display. The word cosmos is derived from the Greek word “kosmos”, which means a balanced universe or order, harmony and often referred to as Mexican Aster. The species name is from the Latin “bipinnatus” meaning “twice-pinnate” The botanical epithet is from the Latin “pinnatus” meaning “with leaflets arranged in opposite pairs”. Cosmos flowers are produced in a capitulum. Modern varieties come with single or double flowers, picotee edges, and even furled petals in the variety Seashells. Ornamental uses of cosmos include cut flowers and as border annual in the gardens. It is a very popular flower for summer bedding. Cosmos has a pleasant aroma and attracts butterflies to the garden. Essential oil extracted from leaves of cosmos. The major constituent of C. bipinnatus contained 15-17% beta-elemene, 15-17% beta-caryophyllene, 10-21% germacrene D and 12-15% bicyclogermacrene (Menut et al., 2000).

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Cosmos is native to scrub and meadowland in Mexico where most of the species occur, Florida and the southern United States, Arizona, Central America, and to South America in the north to Paraguay in the south.

It can also be found in natural areas in much of North America, where it is a garden escape (introduced species) and in some habitats becoming a weed. Cosmos sulphureus originates from Central America (Mexico) and northern South America, where it is still found in the wild. It has been introduced as an ornamental in many countries all over the world, in tropical Africa e.g. in Senegal, Cameroon, Sudan, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Réunion and Mauritius. Sometimes it has escaped from cultivation and behaves like a weed, e.g. in Tanzania, Malawi, Zimbabwe, the United States and Canada. Cosmos caudatus is indigenous to tropical America. It was introduced by Spaniards into the Philippines, possibly because it was used by them as a vegetable at sea. Now it is pantropical, including Southeast Asia, where it is cultivated but also occurs in a naturalized state.

Cosmos is a flowering plant belongs to family Asteraceae. Cosmos bipinnatus is ornamentally important species grown for garden display. The word cosmos is derived from the Greek word “kosmos”, which means a balanced universe or order, harmony and often referred to as Mexican Aster. The species name is from the Latin “bipinnatus” meaning “twice-pinnate” The botanical epithet is from the Latin “pinnatus” meaning “with leaflets arranged in opposite pairs”. Cosmos flowers are produced in a capitulum. Modern varieties come with single or double flowers, picotee edges, and even furled petals in the variety Seashells. Ornamental uses of cosmos include cut flowers and as border annual in the gardens. It is a very popular flower for summer bedding. Cosmos has a pleasant aroma and attracts butterflies to the garden. Essential oil extracted from leaves of cosmos. The major constituent of C. bipinnatus contained 15-17% beta-elemene, 15-17% beta-caryophyllene, 10-21% germacrene D and 12-15% bicyclogermacrene (Menut et al., 2000).

12.1 Introduction

It is important to note that growing crops in a greenhouse requires a significant f inancial and administrative commitment. In order to ensure profitability, firms need to consider both cash flow and profitability. An enterprise budget can help address profitability potential by itemizing costs incurred across a typical production cycle. On the other hand, a cash flow budget is used to analyze the cash inflows and outflows of the enterprise over a fixed period of time.

efficiency, and support strategic decision-making. When integrated with data analytics, cost analysis becomes more precise, data-driven, and adaptable, allowing firms to optimize resource allocation and enhance profitability. The process begins with the collection and classification of cost data. Costs are typically categorized into fixed, variable, and semi-variable components. Fixed costs remain constant regardless of production levels, while variable costs fluctuate with output, and semi-variable costs exhibit characteristics of both. Data analytics tools assist in organizing and cleaning large volumes of financial data from accounting systems, ensuring accuracy and consistency. Proper classification is essential, as it forms the basis for meaningful cost analysis and modeling.q

7.1 Investment Analysis for Agribusiness Projects

Financeis the Art and science of managing money. Financial Management is the manage rial activity concerned with the planning and controlling of the firm’s financial resources. Finance can be classified as Public finance, Private finance (Personal & Business), and finance for Non-Profit organizations. The objectives of financial management are Profit Maximization and Wealth Maximization.

The Cash flow is the net amount of cash and cash-equivalents moving into and out of a business.The types include Operating Cash Flows, Investing Cash Flows and Financing Cash Flows. Annuity cash flows are a series of periodic cash flows of equal amount. The time value of money is the change in the value of money as a result of change in the time duration. They are broadly classified into Future Value of Money and Present Value of Money.

Capital Budgeting is long-term planning form aking and financing proposed capital outlays. It is the process of making investment decisions in capital expenditures. The influential factors ofCapital Budgeting are Urgency, Degree of certainty, Intangible factors, Legal factors, Availability of funds, Future earnings, Obsolescence, Cost considerations, R&D projects and Competitivepressure.

Problem: Cost of cultivation depending upon the seed and time. More yields can be obtained during right time of sowing, but net profit is very less due to the glut in the market. We can get more return from early or late sown crop during both the season due to the high cost in the market.

Theory of Costs

In both short-run and long-run analyses, there exist different cost curves.

Short run is the duration of a given factor or factors. Equipment and business owners are typically fxed in the near term

Long run is the period over which all factors become variable.

Fixed costs: are those expenses that remain constant regardless of output or production levels.. Eg: depreciation, annual maintenance cost etc.

Variable cost: are those expenses that change depending on the volume of output eg : inputs/raw material costs, wages etc.

Short Run Cost Curves

There are seven cost concepts or curves in short run analysis. They are :

1. Total cost (TC)
2. Total Fixed cost (TFC)

There are different types of greenhouses, the low cost and high cost or low technology or high technology greenhouses. The cost of greenhouse and expenditure on crop production under these greenhouses would vary according to technology to be used and the crop is to be produced. The cost would vary from place to place with location of greenhouse. For each type of greenhouse its cost would vary according to geo-climate, the production practices and input expenditure/availability. The cost of construction of greenhouse in 2019 hence varies from Rupees 500 to 6000 per square meter.

Cost estimation is a critical step in the planning and implementation of conservation structures, providing a foundation for project approval, budgeting, and economic evaluation. For drop spillways—hydraulic structures used in soil and water conservation—the process involves calculating all expenses associated with materials, labor, and ancillary charges.
Drop spillways are engineered to safely transport excess runoff from higher elevations to lower ground levels, preventing erosion and structural degradation. Commonly used in agricultural watersheds, these structures play a vital role in controlling gully erosion, managing stormwater, and maintaining land productivity.
Accurate cost estimation includes:
• Quantifying construction materials such as concrete, masonry, reinforcement bars, and pipe outlets.
• Calculating labor costs based on the skilled and unskilled labor required for excavation, form, and structural assembly.
• Adding overhead charges, including land revenue, administrative costs, and potential audit expenses.
A detailed cost estimate ensures that the project remains within budget while meeting safety, durability, and environmental standards. It also aids in comparing alternatives and securing funding or approvals from governing agencies.
COMPONENTS OF A DROP SPILLWAY
Estimating the cost of different conservation structures involves analyzing both material and labor expenses specific to each type of structure. This process plays a vital role in project approval and economic assessment. It includes calculating material quantities, labor charges, and additional costs such as audit fees and land revenue.

Aim

To determine cost of operation of processing machineries with available data.

Total operation cost

For calculation of cost of operation of processing machineries, two types of cost viz., fixed cost and variable cost to be estimated.

13.1. Introduction
Knowledge regarding various relationships existing between costs and output is necessary to comprehend the concepts of equilibrium conditions of different firms under different market conditions. Basically we require data on output, fixed costs, variable costs and the prices of inputs and outputs. From this data we finally derive all the seven cost concepts, viz.,TFC, TVC, TC, AFC, AVC, AC and MC. These cost concepts would have implications for output expansion of the firms and equilibrium position of the firms in different time periods. In the cost theory, economists use different names for cost concepts under different context. They are money costs or nominal costs, real costs, opportunity costs, economic costs, implicit costs, explicit costs, deflated costs, social costs, short run costs, long run costs, separable costs, etc.
Nominal Costs or Money Costs
These are usually expressed in money terms at current prices. Nominal costs of production refer to per unit cost of production of output at current market prices.
Real Costs
When the costs of inputs and input services are expressed at constant prices they become real costs.

5.1. Cost concepts

Cost refers to the money value of effort extended or sacrifice made in producing an article or rendering a service or achieving a specific purpose.

Expenses incurred in organizing and carrying out production process.

Includes outlays of funds for inputs and services.

Total costs: Money value of all inputs used in the production process.

1. Basic Information on the Country and  Agricultural Status
 
1.1. Location of Côte d’Ivoire

Cote D’ivoire (Ivory Coast) is located in West Africa, between the Equator and the Tropic of Cancer, with an area of 3, 22,462 km². It is bordered on the north by Mali and Burkina Faso, no the west by Liberia and Guinea, on the east by Ghana and on the south by the Gulf of Guinea, stretching across nearly 550 km. The economic capital Abidjan is with a population of more than 3 million people and Yamoussoukro, the political capital, has more than 1,50,000 inhabitants.

1.2. Population 
The Ivorian population is 1,53,66,672 people in 1998, of which 26 per cent are foreigners (4,000,047), with an annual population growth rate of 3.3 per cent and a density of 48 habitants/km². 53.8 per cent of the population is under the age of 20 years. The age group between 21 and 60 years is 41 per cent. These figures show the youthfulness of the Ivorian population. The average life expectancy is 65 years.

Cotton is often called as “white gold”. True to its name cotton supports the largest agro based industries in India and cotton industry ranks first in the agro based industries and engages 4 to 5 million people in cotton growing. The industrial sector employs 1.0 million people. At present there are 3660 ginning and 1570 textile mills in India. India earns foreign exchange to a tune of Rs. 2500 million through exports of cotton textiles and products. Cotton is cultivated for ‘lint’ which is used for preparing threads, yarns and medical cotton mixed with synthetic fibre and for various other purposes.

A. Diseases

1. Bacterial Disease: Angular leaf Spot

Occurrence & severity status

Angular leaf spot disease, also known as ‘Black arm disease’ or ‘Bacterial blight’ is a disease of cotton potentially destructive in all cotton-growing areas of the world. The disease became prevalent in the USA during the 1950s (Schnathorst et al., 1960) and in India in the 1970s (Verma, 1986). In the USA, losses of between 34 and 59% were reported (Leyendecker, 1950; Bird, 1959). In India, losses of 5-20% were common in crops (Verma and Singh, 1971). Late and very late sowing of crops resulted in more yield reductions (Meshram and Raj, 1992). In general, losses due to bacterial blight in India are ranged between 1% and 27% depending on the cultivar and crop age (Mishra and Krishna, 2001). In Africa, data on crop losses is available for only a few countries. In Sudan, losses of 20% were common from severe infection (Last, 1960). However, nowadays, due to the wide availability of resistant varieties, its importance has been declined, with certain deviations where proliferation of new races has occurred as in Australia (Anonymous, 1980).

Introduction
 
Cotton belongs to the genus Gossypium, family Malvaceae. Of the 50 species, only four are cultivated, namely, G. arboreum, G. herbaceum, G. hirsutum and G. barbadense. The G. arboreum and G. herbaceum are popularly known as the desi cottons. The G. hirsutum and G. barbadense evolved in the new world and are known as American or Upland (G. hirsutum) and Egyptian or Pima (G. barbadense) cottons. India is the only country in the world where all the four cultivated species of cotton are grown on a commercial scale besides hybrids (both inter and intra specific) in three distinct agro-ecological regions and wide range of soil types.