eChapters

ABSTRACT

The concept and nature of intellectual property have undergone a paradigm shift during the last few decades. The importance of effective IPR governance has attracted the attention of its stakeholders. Hence, this paper focuses on the role of IPR governance and management practices for improving the quality of relationships among stakeholders besides documenting current and future trends of IPR governance and management.

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS – AN INTRODUCTION

Intellectual property rights refer to the privileges granted by the government to any individual or organization for creative prowess. In recent years, such rights have gained immense importance. The laws in existence for protection and enforcement of these rights are meant to foster innovation and for regulating the use of inventions.

Introduction 
The discovery and introduction of antimicrobial agents to clinical medicine was one of the greatest medical triumphs of the 20th century that revolutionized the treatment of bacterial infections. However, the gradual emergence of populations of antimicrobial resistant pathogenic bacteria, resulting from use, misuse and abuse of antimicrobials has today become a major global health concern. Antibacterial drugs have revolutionized our ability to control bacterial disease, and their clinical availability has led to dramatic decreases in morbidity and mortality. (Walsh and Wright, 2005). As such, these therapeutics underpin modern medicine. Despite the integral role of antibiotics in sustaining our modern lifestyle, they are undervalued in both cost and significance by society. Over the past century, their use has provided strong selective pressure on microorganisms, leading to preferential survival and spread of those harbouring antibiotic resistance mechanisms. Multidrug resistance is now commonplace amongst bacterial pathogens with antibiotic resistance now affecting all antibiotic classes. (Coates et al, 2011). This is particularly worrisome in the case of Gram-negative bacteria (e.g. Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii) for which treatment options are already limited. The ‘broken’ economics of antibacterial research and development is often quoted as the main reason for the lack of new therapies but the truth is that it is hard to discover new antibacterial drugs, and the science is not sufficiently advanced to allow discovery of efficient and effective drugs. This has led to fears of a ‘post-antibiotic era’ as it has been estimated that 5–20 novel antibacterial drugs need to enter clinical development in order to effectively contend with the current resistance problem. However, given the attrition rate within the existing drug discovery model, at least 200 discovery programmes would be needed in order to achieve this outcome. Hence, new approaches to antibiotic discovery are needed. The antibiotic pipeline The antibiotic pipeline is not what it once was.4 Pharmaceutical companies were once the main provider of novel antibiotic molecules but they largely withdrew in the late 1990s because of the lack of success and low financial returns in bringing new antibacterial drugs to the market.5 The environment of discovering and developing new antibiotics was quite different during the so-called ‘golden era’ of drug discovery. Antibiotics worked remarkably well because resistance was low and physicians had access to a variety of efficacious antibiotics. Antibiotic research and development programmes were inclined to focus on improved pharmacology to achieve less frequent dosing e.g. once a day, rather than innovative new antibiotics. Natural product screening strategies tended to result in rediscovery of compounds rather than finding new ones. There was also no need to consider those natural products with undesirable properties such as toxicity. Today, only a few large companies such as GlaxoSmithKline, Novartis, Merck and Roche are still actively engaged in antibiotic R&D, with many of the original antibiotic provide.The natural world remains the largest source of novel drug scaffolds making this a viable option in the search for new antibiotic compounds. Advances in bacterial culture techniques, molecular biology and metagenomics will make natural product drug discovery easier and more costeffective, obviating these limiting factors. Screening procedures must include whole-bacterial cell assays, addressing the issue of bacterial permeability and efflux early in the discovery process (Shore and Coukell, 2016). Additionally, the generation of training schemes by, and with, pharmaceutical companies that cover all aspects of the pipeline and include natural product drug discovery, are essential and will ensure that expertise is passed on to future researchers. Investment should also be made into the study of previously characterized lead compounds that did not reach the clinic, so called old leads. The reasons that led to these compounds being dropped from further development vary, ranging from financial issues to trial design, dosing problems and toxicity. It may be that there is now sufficiently improved technology and expertise to develop these as safe and efficacious antibacterials. The revival of interest in old leads could also provide an additional source of novel antimicrobials. A freely accessible database of antibiotics that were never developed has recently been launched, Antibiotic with the aim to reduce unnecessary duplication of Pharmaceutical agents such as nanospheres, liposomes, and immunoglobulins for example have been developed which can alter the pharmacodynamics of a compound, act as carriers for sustained or controlled drug release, and for immunization therapy.

Introduction The Chilika lagoon situated in the eastern coast of India within 85º05' and 85º38' east longitude and 19º54' North latitude near Bay of Bengal and one of the biggest estuarine-style brackish water lagoon in Asia and the greatest migratory waterfowl wintering area on the Indian subcontinent (Suresh et al., 2018). In the monsoon & summer time, the lagoon's size varies between 1165 and 906 sq. km. The total catchment area of the lagoon is 4,406 sq km, of which 32% is made up of the Mahanadi delta and 68% is western catchment (Bengtsson et al., 2012). The lake has a distinctive combination of freshwater, brackish, and marine ecosystems with estuary characteristics. In 1981, Chilika Lake was chosen as the India's first "Ramsar site" and it considered as one of the biodiversity hotspots of the nation (Kumar et al., 2012). The lake is very productive and has abundant fisheries resources. Over 0.15 million fishermen live around the lagoon and rely on its productive fishing grounds for their livelihood (Suresh et al., 2018). The lake area is home to certain uncommon, endangered and IUCN threatened species.

The integration of bioinoculants and nanoparticles presents a promising strategy for enhancing sustainable agricultural practices, yet significant challenges impede their widespread adoption. Limited awareness among farmers regarding the benefits and applications of these technologies is a critical barrier, emphasizing the need for targeted educational initiatives. Additionally, the high cost of nanoparticle and bioinoculant formulations restricts accessibility, particularly for small-scale farmers. Standardization and quality control protocols are crucial to ensure consistent efficacy, as variability in bioinoculant formulations can compromise their effectiveness. Regulatory frameworks remain complex, further hindering commercialization and large-scale implementation. Environmental concerns are also prevalent, given the potential toxicity of nanoparticles like zinc oxide and silver nanoparticles, which may disrupt soil microbial communities. Despite these challenges, future prospects for bioinoculants and nanoparticles are promising. Integrating these technologies into sustainable farming practices can reduce the reliance on synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, as seen in the use of Azospirillum brasilense encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticles to enhance drought tolerance in maize. Furthermore, the application of Pseudomonas putida encapsulated in alginate nanoparticles has effectively mitigated heavy metal stress in tomato plants. Precision agriculture, employing data analytics and remote sensing, can optimize the targeted delivery of bioinoculants and nanoparticles, maximizing crop productivity and nutrient uptake. However, comprehensive in vivo studies are essential to assess long-term efficacy and environmental impact under field conditions. Future research should focus on developing ecofriendly nanomaterials, refining controlled-release systems, and conducting

Introduction

Advances in food preservation methods have supported the journey of food science from that of a cookery science to a fast growing industrial technology. Food preservation knowledge deals with the way to prevent spoilage and maintenance of quality in foods. Spoilage is the deterioration in quality brought about by inherent biochemical and chemical changes, as well as microbial metabolism during food storage. Basic principles of food preservation (Frazier et al., 2008) remains the same, but newer methods for achieving the goal is added through research fuelled by a consumer demand for fresh-like foods with convenience and safety. Scientific information on novel processing methods are beautifully compiled (Cullen et al., 2011; Da-Wen Sun, 2014; Tokuþoðlu and Swanson 2015; Doona, 2018).

In-depth knowledge of physiological activities of micro-organisms in presence of preservation agents is essential for preparation of safe foods with prolonged shelf life. Besides this, it is necessary to understand the effect of food constituents on microbial resistance against inactivation agents, to identify critical dose requirement. This profound knowledge would also help to understand kinetics of microbial inactivation and to develop mathematical models suitable for a realistic design of process parameters. For better appreciation of the following sections, readers are encouraged to have fundamental knowledge in microbiology and food processing. The sections in this chapter cover advanced microbiological knowledge pertaining to the preservation aspects of food.

Animal husbandry programmes have been run through the State schemes. Each State has to evolve its own breeding policy deciding on choice of breed, cross breeding strategy, optional mixture of animals of different breeds required, breeding goals in terms of expected genetic progress to be achieved, specific breeding programmes and the control measures that should be adopted to achieve the desired genetic gains in the population.
General parameters in the breeding policy formulated by various States are
• Indigenous milch breeds such as Shaiwal, Red Sindhi and Gir, should be selectively developed for dairy traits in their native tracts.
• Indigenous dualpurpose breeds such as Hariana, Tharparkar, Rathi, Kankrej, Gaolao, Ongole Deoni etc. should be developed selectively in their native tracts for dairy and draft traits.
• Indigenous draft breeds like Kangayam, Hallikar, Khillari, Amrit Mahal etc. should be developed selectively for draft traits in their native tract.
• Non-descript cattle will be bred with exotic semen to produce cross breed with Holstein Friesian or jersey and maintaing 50% exotic impenitence. In some States Red Sindhi, Tharparkar and Hariana have also been used upgrading non-descript cattle.
• Development of indigenous breeds
• To develop indigenous breeds Government of India has initiated three schemes namely National Project for Cattle and Buffalo Breeding, Central Herd registration scheme, Central Cattle Breeding Farms.
• Central Herd Registration Scheme
• For identification and location of superior germplasms of cattle and buffaloes, propagation of superior genetic stock, regulating sale and purchase, help in formation of breeders societies and to meet requirement of indigenous bulls in the different parts of the country. Government of India

Cattle Breeding Policies and Programmes in the Planning Process

It is necessary to see how the issues relating to Cattle Breeding have been dealt with in the successive Plan periods starting from the First Five Year Plan. It is seen that, while the issue of surplus cattle has been handled in different ways in the various Plan documents, some discussing this issue at great length and other remaining completely silent on the subject, other issues such as cattle development, genetic improvement and breeding etc., have also received varying degrees of emphasis in the different Plans. 

Introduction

The concept and impetus for IPM grew out of the discontent with using a purely insecticidal approach to insect control in many areas in the mid of twentieth century. Excessive use of pesticide and growing needs of people has triggered several consequences such as resistance and resurgence of pests, destruction and elimination of natural enemies, effect on non target organisms, environmental pollution, disruption in food cycle and food web and residues in food commodities and pesticide poisoning. Less knowledge about biocontrolagents/natural enemies and their non-availability at right time is the key hurdles for farming communities to adopt the IPM practices on their farm. However, pesticides are still a significant component of many control programs and their negative environmental and health impacts have stimulated the research to develop alternate pest management strategies, such as biological control (BC) and other compatible, safe and sound control practices. Some remarkable early successes for both the control of insect pests and weeds (e.g. the cottony cushion scale Icerya purchase (Maskell) by the vedalia beetle Rodolia cardinalis (Mulsant) in California; the prickly pear cactus Opuntia stricta (Haw.) by the moth Catoblastis cactorum (Berg) in Australia certainly were an impetus for further research in BC field. Although the levels of success have been variable, biological control is still considered as an important means of pest control, either alone or as component of integrated management programs (Jervis, 2005; Wajnberg et al., 2007).

1.1 Introduction

In the contemporary context, women's empowerment in rural India holds immense significance. These women fulfil critical roles as farmers, wage earners, and entrepreneurs, all while managing family responsibilities such as providing food and caring for children and older people. Despite their vital contributions, rural women face entrenched challenges, including gender based discrimination, societal norms, and unequal access to education, healthcare, property, and financial services. The burden of unpaid work, particularly prevalent in economically disadvantaged households, further compounds these obstacles. Notably, women from indigenous and grassroots communities contribute significantly to their communities’ livelihoods and serve as custodians of traditional knowledge essential for cultural preservation.

Introduction

Indian agriculture has come a long way since the inception of planning in1951. All along there was an almost obsessive concern of development policy with the attainment of self-sufficiency in food. We faced nightmare of absolute shortage of food grains supplies in the 1960s, when the average annual imports of wheat hovered around three million tones. We survived through this phase because of the munificence of the US, which supplied wheat to us under its PL 480 programme. There have been several policy statements for agriculture during the last sixty years. India attained self-sufficiency in food grains in the 1970s and what is more, has emerged as an exporter of food grains in more recent years. Attainment of food self-sufficiency, even in a technical sense, is admittedly an important landmark in the history of growth of Indian agriculture, but this has not meant the dilution of problems facing Indian agriculture. Problems of agricultural growth and rural development in general continue to remain, in the new millennium, as daunting as they were in the 1950s. One major difference is that agricultural sector today faces a host of what we might call second generation problems.

Introduction

Today, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has become a global issue, contributing to rise in mortality and cost of treatment. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is the resistance of a microorganism against an antimicrobial agent to which it was originally sensitive (WHO, 2013). Dispersion of antibiotics is done at large scale, in India even sometimes without any proper prescription. Animal Husbandry is not untouched and antibiotics are used to a great extent, which needs enforcement of strict government rules and regulations for their use in f ield conditions (PHFI, 2011).

Extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs) are enzymes that hydrolyse most of the β-lactam antibiotics and thus mediate resistance to penicillins, 3rd and 4th generation cephalosporins (Saravanan et al., 2018). Beta-lactamase inhibitors, inhibit these ESBLs such as clavulanic acid, sulbactam and tazobactam (Trott, 2013). The genes encoding for these enzymes are commonly found both on the chromosomes and plasmids among Enterobacteriaceae family (Kotsoana et al., 2019).

Among Enterobacteriacae, E. coli and Klebsiella species are main environmental pathogens associated with various illnesses such as acute bovine mastitis (Koovapra, 2015), pathogenic E. coli with diarrhoea and extra intestinal infections in humans and animals (Levine et al., 1987), K. pneumoniae with respiratory and urinary tract as well as bloodstream infections (Daehre et al., 2018). Resistance to extended-spectrum β-lactams occurs mainly in members of Enterobacteriaceae family through plasmids encoded ESBL genes. (Sharma et al., 2010).

Abstract

Himachal Pradesh has achieved a transformation in the horticulture sector during the last fifty years. The total area under fruits, which was only 793 hectares in 1950 has increased to 1.82 lakh Hectares during 2003-04, out of which temperate fruits alone cover an area of 1.20 lakh hectares. Fruit production has also increased from 1200 M.T. in 1950 to 6.92 lakh MT during 2004-05, with temperate fruits accounting for 5.92 lakh MT.  Around 4.64 lakh farmers are estimated to be involved in the fruit production programme and the fruit industry generates a gross domestic income of about Rs. 1000 crores annually. The existing problems and constraints have been identified and the remedial measures required to provide the desired impetus to the horticulture industry of the State, elaborated.

Introduction

The maritime industry, a cornerstone of global trade and commerce, has always been a complex and challenging domain. With the vastness of the world's oceans and the diversity of activities that take place within them, effective monitoring and management of maritime activities are crucial. This is where Systems for Monitoring Vessels come into play. VMS are a form of satellite based surveillance system designed to monitor the location, course, and speed of vessels. They provide real-time data to maritime authorities, contributing to the safety, security, and sustainability of marine operations.

1. Introduction 
The intersection of nanotechnology and microalgal biodiesel production presents a compelling avenue for addressing the pressing challenges of sustainability, energy security, and environmental conservation (Cai et al., 2021a). Microalgae, microscopic photosynthetic organisms, have emerged as a promising source for biodiesel due to their high lipid content, rapid growth rates, and potential for cultivation in diverse environments as compare to other sources as given in Fig. 1. However, the commercialization of microalgal biodiesel has been hampered by various limitations, including low lipid productivity, inefficient harvesting techniques, and high production costs. Nanotechnology, with its ability to manipulate materials at the nanoscale, offers innovative solutions to enhance various stages of microalgal biodiesel production. From cultivation to processing, nanomaterials and nanodevices hold the potential to optimize efficiency, increase yields, and reduce environmental impacts. By improving light penetration, nutrient delivery, and CO2 utilization, nanotechnology-enabled systems enhance microalgal growth and lipid accumulation (Li et al., 2019; Cai et al., 2021b). Moreover, nanoscale structures facilitate the development of efficient harvesting methods, minimizing energy consumption and water usage. In biodiesel processing, nanocatalysts exhibit superior catalytic activity, enabling faster reaction times and higher yields in transesterification processes. Nanostructured membranes enhance the purification and separation of biodiesel, ensuring high-quality end products with minimal impurities. Despite these advancements, challenges such as scalability, cost-effectiveness, and environmental sustainability of nanotechnology-based microalgal biodiesel production persist (Zhao et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2019). This chapter aims to provide an overview of the current status and future prospects of integrating nanotechnology into microalgal biodiesel production. Through a 2 | Nanotools for Microalgal Biodiesel Production comprehensive analysis of recent advancements, challenges, and opportunities, we seek to elucidate the potential of nanotechnology to drive the commercialization and widespread adoption of sustainable microalgal biodiesel. By fostering interdisciplinary collaborations and leveraging emerging technologies, we can pave the way towards a more sustainable and energy-efficient future.

Abstract

India has now become the largest producer of fruits after China by producing 45.2 million tones of fruits from 3.78 million hectare area (NHB, 2004). India is first in the production of mango, banana, sapota and acid lime. India has also recorded highest productivity in grapes, sapota and acid lime in the world. India produces about 40 fruits commercially; however, the major share is from tropical and subtropical fruits like mango (28.17%), banana (29.43%), citrus (15.56 %), guava (3.97%) and grapes (2.76 %). Among temperate fruits apple has maximum area and production and 2. 98 % share in total production. Temperate fruits growing in India spread over some 18 states. These states are categorized into 3 major regions, namely, Northern Western Himalayan Region (NWHR), North Eastern Himalayan Region (NEHR) and other hilly areas.

Abstract

Sikkim is part of the eastern Himalayan hotspot. Rich biological diversity of the region is owing to its wide range of topography, varied climatic condition and high annual precipitation, inhabited by three major ethnic communities, the Lepchas, Bhutias and Nepalese. With its unique ethno-cultural diversity and equally rich Phyto-diversity, the region holds an immense ethno-botanical knowledge and potential. The collection of food, fodder, fuel wood, timber, herbs for folk medicine from wild is an integral and deep-rooted cultural component and for sustaining socio-economic condition of the people. Medicinal plants of this region have potential for value addition as well as domestication. The folk medicine practices of three ethnic groups are different, but in general there are strong beliefs system in relation of folk medicine with supernatural forces and deities; local people consider its mountain peaks, forest, lakes as sacred hence it helps in sustainable management of its natural resources traditionally. Developments activities, urbanization, overexploitation of important plants and not giving due importance to the traditional knowledge in the past decades leads to the potential depletion in wild and that bring concern for their conservation. A proper strategic plan is needed for conservation of these valuable resources and promoting the indigenous traditional knowledge for sustainable development. Conservation-linked with people participation has been initiated in Sikkim through Sikkim State biodiversity board (SSBB), with its biodiversity management committees (BMCs), and local activist and stakeholders. The research institution of the region and researcher from outside has contributed immensely in documentations of the ethno-botanical knowledge and phyto-diversity of this region. This chapter reviews the current status of traditional ethno-botanical knowledge system of Sikkim state and highlights the current scenario of biological diversity; conservation practices, threats and challenges.

Introduction

Yak is a main source of livelihood for the high altitude residents in Ladakh. The domestic yak (Bos grunniens) is a long haired domesticated bovine found throughout the Himalayan region of the Indian subcontinent as well as in the Tibetan plateau, Mongolia and Russia. They are originated from the wild yaks. Yaks are belonging to the genus Bos. The yak is the only bovine species (ruminant) which resides in the high hills of the Himalayas even at altitudes of 6000 meters above the mean sea level. The normal living range of yak is at 3000 to 4500 meters height from the mean sea level which are tree less uplands. Similar to domestic cattle and goat, Chromosomes number of yak is 60. Zoological name of yak is Poephagus grunniens or Bos grunniens.

Distribution

The distribution of Yak is majorly found in Northern Ladakh, the plateau of Tibet and part of the Kansu province in China. Within India, yak mostly found in Changechenmo valley in Ladak and spiti valleys of Himachal Pradesh, and also in North Eastern states, particularly in Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Nagaland. Small number of yaks is also found in Garhwal district of Uttar Pradesh. It is native in Tibet country as well as surrounding countries in Central Asia. The yak is also found in Pakistan, Northern Afghanisthan, Bhutan, Mongolia and in China.

Introduction

Vegetables are the vital sources of minerals, vitamins and dietary fibres and play an important role in supplying nutrition to human health. Vegetables require comparatively lesser quantities of agro-inputs to grow. Vegetables are rich source of vitamins, minerals and plant fibres which provide food and nutritional security. These also generate high income and employment, particularly for small farmers. Vegetables being a rich and cheap source of vitamins and minerals, occupy an important place in the food basket of Indian consumers, a majority of whom are vegetarian. This persistent vegetarianism coupled with rising per capita income is fuelling a rapid growth in consumption of vegetables. Presently, India is producing more then 70 types of vegetables which are capable of meet out the economic and nutritional requirement of the country (Table 1). There has been a revolution in the production of vegetables in the country in the last four decades.

Introduction

According to research released not too long ago by the United Nations, the population of the entire planet is expected to reach around 8 billion by the end of the year 2022. As a consequence, the future demand for the production and distribution of food must be satisfied to provide sustenance for the expanding population of the world and to alleviate human suffering. However, in countries like India, food is wasted at an alarmingly high rate every year because there are insufficient facilities for cooling and storing food once it has been harvested. The majority of the losses began on the farm level since the fresh produce, which requires fast refrigeration after harvest in large quantities, was unable to be given, which led to the spoilage of the food. It is especially vital to shorten the amount of time between harvesting and first cooling to slow down the rate at which newly harvested fruits and vegetables breathe out carbon dioxide and exhale it. When keeping fresh fruits and vegetables, the two most important controlling parameters are temperature and relative humidity. These two factors work together to minimize the amount of water that is lost and to keep the product quality from deteriorating. Following their preferred ranges of temperature and relative humidity, fruits and vegetables can be divided into the following categories: (Table 15.1). For the objectives of on-farm cooling, the majority of fresh fruits and vegetables that are classified as belonging to groups 1 and 2 need to be concentrated, which necessitates maintaining an ideal temperature of less than 10°C and a relative humidity of more than 90%.

Haemoprotozoan parasites are responsible for causing severe infections in humans as well as animals across the world. The important hemoprotozoan diseases of livestock are trypanosomosis, theileriosis, babesiosis, and
anaplasmosis, which are caused by several species of Trypanosoma, Theileria, Babesia, and Anaplasma, respectively, in several species of livestock. These diseases caused huge impact on health and productivity of livestock as well as human beings and causes great economic losses to the livestock production n terms of morbidity and mortality worldwide. In India, the annual economic loss has been esteemed in the livestock due to theileriosis, babesiosis and trypanosomosis of Rs 8426 crore, Rs 4000 crore and Rs 4474 core, respectively. The major clinical signs of the haemoprotozoan disease varies from fever, anorexia, anaemia, abortion, and even death in the acute form of infections. The symptomatological treatment is a quite common practice in the field condition to treat the animals suspected with haemoprotozon infection leading to the development of resistance in animals to currently available drugs against haemoprotozoans. The accurate and prompt diagnosis of haemoprotozoan infection is a key to control these diseases. Routine diagnosis of haemoprotozoan infection has been rely on clinical findings and microscopical demonstration of the infective parasitic stages in the blood or tissue fluid smear. Conventional diagnostic techniques such as Microscopical examination techniques and Immunological assay provide the definite clues about parasitic infections in general, but these tests have some limitations.