eChapters

10.1. Black Tip

The black tip of grain infection is mostly observed on the wheat grains.

The fungal pathogen involved in causing the black tip of grain includes the species of the fungal genus Alternaria and Helminthosporium.

10.1.1. Alternaria

The genus stands distinct from other genera by its transversely and longitudinally septate (muriform) conidia. The conidia are usually formed in chains. These are dark brown, typically obclavate with a distinct oval body and beak.

9.1. Fruit Spot and Blisters

9.1.1. Colletotrichum

The pathogen forms papery or watery brownish areas at the site of infection, with a large number of acervuli on the infected parts. In the acervulus, the conidiophores are slightly curved, short, and club-shaped. The conidia are hyaline and falcate, borne singly on the conidiophores. Numerous black colored and thick-walled setae are also produced in the acervulus. In culture, most isolates produce cottony, fluffy, or suppressed colonies (Fig. 9.1).

8.1. Malformation

8.1.1. Fusarium

The classical example of Fusarium infection is Fusarium moniliforme which induces malformation in inflorescence, causing mango malformation disease.

The fungal mycelial morphology may vary significantly on different media, and the descriptions here are based upon growth on potato flakes agar (PFA) at 25° C with on and off fluorescent light cycles of approximately 12 h each. The mycelial colony has rapid growth.

7.1. Die-Back

7.1.1. Colletotrichum

The pathogen forms a large number of acervuli on the infected parts. The conidiophores are slightly curved, short, and club-shaped. The conidia are hyaline and falcate, borne singly on the conidiophores. Numerous black colored and thick-walled setae are also produced in acervulus. In culture, most isolates produce cottony, fluffy, or suppressed colonies (Fig. 7.1).

6.1. Leaf Spot, Blight, and Blast

Leaf spots are irregular or round blemishes found on either side or both sides of the leaves. A typical spot is “zonal,” meaning it has a definite edge and a darker border. When lots of spots are present, they can grow together to cover the larger areas of the leaves. Different fungi are responsible for the leaf spots and sometimes a particular fungus causes a peculiar type of leaf spot and includes the fungi.

5.1. Gummosis

5.1.1. Phytophthora\

Phytophtora citrophthora, Phytophtora nicotianae, Phytophtora syringae are the phytophthora species associated with citrus gummosis; while Phytophtora pistaciae sp. nov. and Phytophtora melonis are the principal causes of pistachio gummosis.

4.1. Damping Off

4.1.1. Pythium

Pythium has filamentous (thread-like), hyaline, and coenocytic (non-septate) mycelial growth. The asexual or vegetative stage of Pythium produces sporangia (that germinate directly to produce a hypha or indirectly to give rise to a vesicle outside the sporangium, within which zoospores are formed) and sometimes hyphal swellings (spherical sporangia-like structures that do not give rise to zoospores).

3.1. Terminology Used in the Description of the Fungal Pathogen

3.1.1. The Mycelium

The hypha or mass of hyphae that make up the body of a fungus.

3.1.1.1. Coenocytic or aseptate mycelium

For visualization and identification of fungal specimens into their genus and species, the staining of the fungal specimens and their microscopy are necessary. The simple binocular microscope can be used for microscopy of the fungal specimens.

2.1. Stains to be Used in Microscopy

1. Methylene blue stain

2. Lacto phenol cotton blue stain

3. Crystal violet stain

4. Safranin

Fungi have been known to cause plant diseases in crops and plants of economic importance to humans since time immemorial. Ancient agriculture witnessed these plants’ sufferings but thought it was due to the curse of God on humans. The curiosity to know the causes of these crops and plant suffering developed the science of plant pathology and enlightened our understanding of the causes of these diseases. Among different plant pathogens, fungi occupy the prime position to cause plant diseases.

Introduction

Since shrimp aquaculture became a big commercial enterprise in the 1970s, disease has had a significant influence on the industry. Major diseases of farmed shrimp have been identified as those caused by viruses, true bacteria, protozoa, and fungi. Nowadays, chemotherapeutics, regular sanitization, and enhanced culture procedures are employed to treat many bacterial, fungal, and protozoan-caused illnesses. Shrimp farming continues to be impacted by diseases, and their avoidance necessitates the development and use of a biosecurity policy unique to each facility, culture system, and sanitary zone.

Introduction

With global population expansion, there is an increase in demand for high quality protein, especially from aquatic sources which have been achieved to some extent through enhanced management, nutrition, genetic improvement of production traits, disease diagnostics and therapeutics. The increasing role of aquaculture during the past decade has forced fishery managers to begin to address many problems associated with the intensive management of small populations. Any fishery operation which uses the limited number of broodstock fish for the production of next-generation can lead to a constriction in the gene pool of that population (Kincaid,1983).

Introduction

Plants are the principal producers of phytochemicals, which are compounds with biological activity. Plants serve as the primary source of many active compounds in the pharmaceutical business. Their pharmacological character istics make them useful in the treatment of fungal and bacterial infections, as well as degenerative conditions such as diabetes and cancer that progress over time. Pharmacologically, it has specific effects on human health, including anti-inflammatory properties, antiallergic, antioxidant compounds, antimicrobial, antifungal, antispasmodic, chemopreventive, hepatic-protective, hypolipidemic, neuroprotective, hypotensive, antiaging, bone density loss, DNA damage, cancer, and heart diseases.

Introduction

The maritime industry, a cornerstone of global trade and commerce, has always been a complex and challenging domain. With the vastness of the world's oceans and the diversity of activities that take place within them, effective monitoring and management of maritime activities are crucial. This is where Systems for Monitoring Vessels come into play. VMS are a form of satellite based surveillance system designed to monitor the location, course, and speed of vessels. They provide real-time data to maritime authorities, contributing to the safety, security, and sustainability of marine operations.

Introduction

Mangroves are commonly characterized as halophytic arboreal plant groups that are found in tropical and subtropical coastal regions (Biswas et al., 2012). As stated by Tomlinson (1986), a genuine mangrove species is characterized by its unwavering commitment to the mangrove ecosystem, its capacity to establish exclusive populations, its possession of distinct morphological and physiological traits that facilitate adaptation to the mangrove habitat, and its typical taxonomic separating from terrestrial counterparts.

Introduction

The initial information of marine litter in the oceans during 1970s drew minimal attention of the scientific community. (Carpenter et al., 1972; Carpenter and Smith, 1972; Coe and Rogers, 1996; Colton and Knapp, 1974). In recent years, with actual primary and secondary data on environmental and ecological consequences of marine and associated debris, this theme established an increased attention on research (Andrady, 2011).

Introduction

Corals, those captivating creatures of the underwater world, belong to the enchanting realm of Cnidaria—a diverse group of invertebrate animals. Among its mesmerizing members are jellyfish and sea anemones, which might have caught your eye in tide pools or along the shoreline. These creatures come in an astonishing array of hues, forms, and sizes, yet they all share a unique trait: a simple stomach sporting a solitary mouth encircled by tentacles armed with stinging cells.

Introduction

Age determination, a fundamental discipline within fisheries biology and ecology, is a critical tool for unraveling the life histories and population dynamics of aquatic species. The ability to accurately estimate the age of individual fish holds immense value in various scientific, management, and conservation contexts.

Introduction

Fertilizers are natural or man-made compounds applied on the plant ,soil or water for enhancement of natural soil or water nutrients for improvement of growth , fertility of soil (Edgerton 2009) or water. These make accessible vital macro-nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sulfur, and magnesium) together with various micronutrients (zinc, copper, iron, boron, and molybdenum) to plants (Alley and Vanlauwe 2009) and animals.

Introduction

Over the past two decades, seafood consumption and popularity have gradually increased. However, creating high-quality items necessitates paying close attention to the product's quality and safety as well as creating new products employing modern technologies. Through a variety of modern biotechnology advancements such as biomagnetism, biosensors, biomarkers, and bioassay methods are used to analyze and assess the quality of various seafood by f inding concentrations of compounds including allergens, nutritional and non-nutritional components, antioxidants, and the presence of microbial contaminants, biotoxins, and other contaminants significantly effective in food safety evaluation.