eChapters

Introduction

Spoilage in agricultural products due to mould growth can occur at various stages of production and storage and is significant in terms of trade economics, food safety and public health (Shephard, 2008). It has been reported that 5–10 % of agricultural products in the world are spoiled by mould contamination to the extent that they cannot be consumed by humans or animals. Mould growth decreases the quality of food and also creates a potential risk for human health because of the production of toxic secondary metabolites known as “mycotoxins”. Foods contaminated by mycotoxins, when consumed by humans and animals causes a disease called “mycotoxicosis”, resulting in death (Wagacha and Muthomi, 2008).

Isolation of Peripheral Blood Lymphocytes

Chemicals

1. Heparin

2. Sterile PBS (pH 7.2)

3. Histopaque-1077

4. RPMI-1640 Media

Protocol

Collect 5 ml of blood from the animal in 1 ml (20 IU/ml of blood) of diluted heparin and add 2 ml of PBS. Layer over the diluted blood on 5 ml of histopaque-1077 in 15 ml centrifuge tube and centrifuge at 1500 rpm for 40 min. Collect the buffy coat at the interface of plasma and histopaque in separate centrifuge tubes. Wash the cells thrice with PBS and suspended in 2 ml of RPMI-1640 media supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum. Determine the percentage cell viability by 0.1% trypan blue exclusion test, using hemocytometer. Finally dilute the cell suspension to 106 cells/ml in RPMI 1640 medium.

Injudicious and indiscriminate use of several agrochemicals viz. pesticides, herbicides, insecticides, dyes and medicaments in the field of agriculture and veterinary practices threatens the human and animal population for the toxicity of these environmental deterrents. These agrochemicals have been associated with several episodes of accidental poisoning and mortality among human and animal population. The episode of Mass ethion poisoning in Gujarat is one of the commonest example of inclusion of pesticides or agrochemicals in the environmental pollutants. There are modern tools to evaluate and analyze these chemicals in the environmental pollutants of human and animal use. The sensitivity of these modern highly sophisticated tools has now immensely changed the analytical environmental pollutants industry. Gas chromatography and Mass Spectrophotometry i.e. (GC-MS) technique is employed to detect the volatile residues from environmental pollutants. Whereas, High performance liquid chromatography i.e. HPLC is employed to analyse and detect non volatile drug residues. Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) instrument separates chemical mixtures (the GC component) and identifies the components at a molecular level (the MS component). It is one of the most accurate tools for analyzing environmental samples.

ABSTRACT

Genetic relationships were estimated among twenty five ashgourd (Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn.) landraces of different types using PCR-based random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers. The molecular survey of the ashgourd germplasm by RAPD using three random primers resulted in twenty scorable bands (average of 6.66 bands per primer) of which two were monomorphic and rest, 18 were polymorphic (90.0%). Pair-wise genetic similarities among the landraces determined using Jaccard’s coefficient ranged from 0.14 to 1.00. The dendrogram based on clustering matrix separated the landraces with morphologically distinct smooth textured fruits from waxy textured fruits and the former group showed less divergence than the latter. With in the group of waxy textured fruits, limited variation was detected among landraces with small and medium sized fruits. Further, morphologically similar landraces with large fruits form distinct clusters with in the major clusters. The study demonstrated the usefulness of the RAPD marker analysis in effectively assessing the genetic relationship present among the ashgourd landraces examined.

ABSTRACT

Genetic variability was assessed among twenty five distinct drumstick (Moringa oleifera Lam.) landraces using PCR based random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers. Genomic DNA extracted from tender leaves was used for RAPD analysis. Thirty five primers were screened and based on the number of bands three primers were selected. The primers produced 34 bands, of which 58 % (20 bands) were polymorphic. The data were analysed using NTSYS pc 2.1 software. The similarity matrix constructed using Jaccard’s coefficient method was subjected to cluster analysis using UPGMA (Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean) and dendrogram was generated. The pair wise coefficient values in the genetic similarity matrix among the landraces varied between 0.28 and 1.00. The dendrogram based on the matrix separated the landraces with distinct morphological characters and it was noted that the cluster formation was not fully in agreement with the geographical location. The study showed the use of RAPD markers in detecting genetic variability present among the drumstick landraces studied.

ABSTRACT

A number of secondary metabolites are produced by cyanobacteria involving the non-ribosomal peptide biosynthetic pathway. Some of these compounds have potential biotechnological applications, whereas others (the cyanotoxins) are undesired due to their toxicity to animals. The occurrence of toxic cyanobacterial blooms in freshwater bodies that are used as source for human consumption, recreation and irrigation are frequent nowadays due to increasing artificial eutrophication of these environments. It is important to monitor toxin-producing strains in order to prevent the adverse effects caused by their toxins to human and animal health. Thus, the development of rapid and sensitive methods for the detection of cyanotoxins is important as they could be useful to monitor water supplies and contribute for watershed monitoring strategies. Current methods include cell counting, microscopic identification and toxin analysis by biochemical and analytical techniques. However, in recent years, molecular biology techniques, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), have been used to amplify specific regions within biosynthetic genes for rapid and sensitive identification of toxic cyanobacteria. The aim of this chapter is to provide an update of cyanotoxin biosynthesis and discuss the advances and limitations of molecular biology regarding its application as indicative of cyanotoxin production.

Introduction

The most common method of bacterial transformation utilizes high levels of calcium chloride to facilitate the entry of plasmid DNA vectors into E.coli in conjunction with structural alteration of the bacterial cell wall. In general, there are three basic steps in the introduction of plasmid DNA unto cells.

1. Preparation of “competent” cells to enable cells to accept DNA.
2. Transformation of these competent cells, and
3. Selection of transformants.

Most E.coli strains exhibit transformation efficiency (measured as transformants per microgram plasmid DNA) in the range of 10⁵ to 10⁸.

The factors influencing this efficiency depends upon the condition that render cells competent.

Abstract
Infectious diseases pose significant threats to global aquaculture, causing substantial economic losses exacerbated by intensive farming practices. RNA viruses, including birnavirus, nodavirus, rhabdovirus, and others, infect both wild and cultured fish, leading to severe mortalities. This study focused on detecting two RNA viruses, Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus (IHNV) and Spring Viremia of Carp Virus (SVCV), using the TRIZOL reagent method. Fish samples, including Tilapia, Mrigal, Catla, and Minor carp, were observed for clinical symptoms and dissected to collect organs like kidney and spleen. RNA extraction was performed using TRIZOL, followed by cDNA synthesis and PCR amplification targeting specific viral genes. Gel electrophoresis confirmed the absence of IHNV and SVCV in all samples tested. This comprehensive methodology ensures efficient surveillance and early detection of viral infections in aquaculture, thereby enhancing disease management strategies and economic sustainability. The findings indicate a current absence of IHNV and SVCV in the studied fish populations, emphasizing the importance of ongoing monitoring to safeguard aquatic health.
Keywords: (RNA Viruses, Trizol reagent method, Viral detection)

Remote sensing has proved its credibility beyond doubt in natural resources survey and environmental monitoring owing to its synoptivity, multispectral photographic capability and repetitive coverage. While its synoptivity gives unbiased information on the regional panorama of the earth surface, its multispectral possibility aids precise interpretation of various objects, as different terrestrial objects exhibit various spectral responses in different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. Amongst various terrestrial objects, water has a characteristic spectral response of its own, i.e. it permits the blue / red part of EMR (electromagnetic radiation, 0.4-0.8 µm) to penetrate inside. On the contrary, it totally absorbs the infrared part of EMR (0.8-1.5 µm). As such blue/red part of EMR penetrates the water bodies, the impurities and suspended sediments are seen very clearly in various shades of gray as and when the water bodies are shallow. Many workers, therefore, have used blue / red band of the satellite data in such water-quality studies^l-3. Hardy⁴ has observed that the infrared light in the spectral regions of 0.6-1.4 µm has the potential to map the turbidity in the ocean water, whereas Kritakos et al ⁵ have used the rationed data of visible and near infrared bands (0.4-1.1 µm) and obtained better results for water quality monitoring. Keeping such facts in mind, the blue/red band (band 2) of the IRS 1A satellite data was used to configurate the bathymetry along Madras coast in Bay of Bengal (Figure 1 a).

In the present study, the IRS lA band 2 data (0.52-0.59 µm) of March 1991 was used and subjected to edge enhancement studies for the coastal zone of Madras (Figure 1 a). Such edge enhancement normally sharpens the edges of two contrasting objects or sharpens the edges of objects of contrasting relief. In such edge enhanced data, few

A detention reservoir temporarily stores storm runoff and releases it gradually at a controlled rate, thereby reducing the peak discharge reaching downstream channels and communities. Unlike a conventional conservation reservoir, its principal function is short-term flood moderation rather than permanent water storage. Its performance depends on basin capacity, inlet and outlet arrangements, catchment response, design storm, allowable downstream discharge, and available drawdown time. This chapter explains the concept, purposes, and functioning of detention reservoirs and distinguishes them from ordinary storage reservoirs. It covers their classifications, site requirements, storage estimation, outlet design, routing principles, benefits, limitations, maintenance, and application in rural watersheds, urban drainage systems, and integrated flood-control programmes.

To overcome the limitation of proximate analysis P.J. Van Soest in 1963 developed a method which makes use of the concept that the dry matter of plant origin consists of two principal parts:
    1.    Cell contents 
    2.    Cell wall contents

The method is efficient to take care of the defects in the principle of estimating crude fiber and NFE by proximate analysis. Van Soest has partitioned the carbohydrates into various fractions by a system of analysis using detergents. Cell contents are soluble in neutral detergent includes lipids, sugars, organic acids, starch, soluble proteins, NPN compounds and other water soluble materials, where as cell wall (fiber) is insoluble in neutral detergent but it is soluble in acid detergent includes hemicelluloses, cellulose, lignin, lignified nitrogen compounds, heat damages proteins, keratins and silica. This method of partitioning carbohydrate is essential to be expressed in case of ruminants, due to their capacities for making use of different fractions of crude fibre especially the cellulose and hemicellulose, while the simple stomached animals can rarely do so. 

Water is one of the most important production assets and securing access to and control and management of water is key to enhance livelihood base of any country like India where most people depends on agriculture. India is endowed with rich and vast diversity of natural resources, water being one among them. But water resources in India are unevenly distributed over the country. The more than 50 per cent of the total resources distributed with five states namely Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and West Bengal (MWR, 2008) and left other states much prone to water scarcity.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is the most important source of varietal deterioration during seed production.
2. _____ in oats is caused due to mutation.
3. In peas, _____ is caused due to mutation.
4. _____ is another most important source of varietal deterioration due to introgression to genes from unrelated stocks.
5. _____ is the major source of genetic contamination and varietal deterioration in cross fertilized crop.

Genetic purity (trueness to type) of a variety can deteriorate due to several factors during production cycles. The best means to insure genetic purity therefore, would be to overcome to the greatest possible extent the various factors responsible for genetic deterioration. The important factors of apparent and real deterioration of varieties as listed by Kadam (1942) are as follows:

Developmental variations

Mechanical mixtures

Mutations

Natural crossing

Minor genetic variations

Selective influence of diseases

The technique of the plant breeder

Introduction

Organic farming is an inclusive system of producing high-quality products through such processes which have the least impairment on the environment, humans, plants, or animal health. Thus, the term in its essence concentrates on sustainability in the farm management practices and food production system. Chopra et al. (2013) in their study defined organic farming as a management & ecological production system that not only promotes biodiversity but also benefits biological cycles and soil nutrition activities. It focuses on minimal use of pesticides and encourages those farm practices that restore balance, and increase ecological harmony. 

Abstract

Training is essential but expensive. Hence, training impact is a crucial measure. National Agricultural Research System (NARS), India employs about 30000 scientists. To effectively manage such huge scientific-capital, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) establishedCentres for Advanced Faculty Training (CAFT) and National Academy of Agricultural Research Management (NAARM). CAFT train faculty of State Agricultural Universities (SAUs), while NAARM trains scientists of ICAR institutes and SAUs. Assessing impact of these training programmes becomes essential. Application of knowledge, skills and attitude (KSA) acquired during training back at job environment is training-transfer that addresses learning, behaviour and results levels of training impact. This chapter critically analyses training-transfer of NAARM and CAFT programmes, suggests empirical framework to enhance impact of NAARM and CAFT programmes and thus contributes to literature. Policy strategies suggested in this paper hold wider applicability.

Wood apple (Feronialimonia) commonly known as Bael in various Indian sub-continent languages is the most under-utilised fruit despite of its aromatic flavor, high nutritional components and important medicinal values. Reason may be due to challenge in harnessing the pulp from the fruit. It is considered under seasonal fruit but it has long duration of shelf-life as compared to other fruits.The physic-chemical characteristics revealed that it has high shell weight of 55.67% as compared to pulp weight of 43.77% (Devi et al. 2018).

55.1. Aim

To determine dietary fibres in given samples.

55.2. Theory

Fibres can be classified into four categories like crude fibre (cellulose); acid detergent fibre (cellulose + lignin); neutral detergent fibre (cellulose + lignin + hemicelluloses) and total dietary fibre.

55.3. Procedure for estimation of dietary fibre

55.3.1. Acid detergent fibre (ADF)

Reagents: Cetyl tri-methyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) reagent and Acetone

Apparatus: Digestion apparatus vacuum pump, oven, desiccator and sintered glass crucible.

Purpose: The organic acids present in fruits and vegetables influence the flavour, colour, keeping quality and maturity. The maturity standards are determined by the acid and sugar ratio. The total acidity (citric acid) is determined by titrating the juice against standard alkali solution.

Equipments and chemicals: 10 ml., pipette, 25ml. Burette, small glass funnel, dropper, juice extractor, distilled water, 100ml. volumetric flask, burette stand, beaker, N/10 sodium hydroxide, filter paper, phenolphthalein indicator (one gram of phenolphthalein in 100ml. of 95% ethyl alcohol)

High-performance liquid chromatography or high-pressure liquid chromato graphy (HPLC) is a chromatographic method that is used to separate a mixture of compounds in analytical chemistry and biochemistry so as to identify, quantify or purify the individual components of the mixture. It involves the injection of a small volume of liquid sample into a tube packed with tiny particles (1.8- to 5-micron (μm) particle size called the stationary phase) where individual components of the sample are moved down the packed tube (column) with a liquid (mobile phase) forced through the column by high pressure delivered by a pump. These components are separated from one another by the column packing that involves various chemical and/or physical interactions between their molecules and the packing particles. These separated components are detected at the exit of this tube (column) by a flow-through device (detector) that measures their amount. An output from this detector is called a “liquid chromatogram”.

Aflatoxins are toxic and carcinogenic compounds produced as metabolites by many Aspergillus species. This fungus invades habitats such as soil, grain, nuts, or decaying vegetation when- ever suitable conditions such as high moisture and temperature are met. B1 is the most toxic of at least 14 different types of naturally occurring aflatoxins. Therefore, many countries and regulatory agencies impose strict limits on B1 as well as other common aflatoxins such as B2, G1, and G2 despite exhibiting lower toxicity. The U.S. FDA set the action level to20 μg/kg (ppb) for human food and to 300 μg/kg (ppb) for animal feed. Aflatoxin B1 is extremely widespread and is present in food and feed products such as cottonseed, corn, and peanuts. It is highly toxic and has been classified as a group 1 carcinogen by the WHO. The aflatoxins B2 , G1 , and G2 are usually found accompanying B1 , in lower concentrations in the contaminated samples. The order of toxicity is AFB1 > AFG1 > AFB2> AFG2.