eChapters

1. INTRODUCTION

India is blessed with all types of vegetation because of the diversified climatic and physiographic factors like tropical, subtropical, temperate and alpine. Due to its wide ranging environmental regimes and diverse biological communities, it is one of the world’s 12 “Mega diversity” nations. Out of nearly 425 families of flowering plants in the world, 328 families with 21,000 species are found in India. Further, in India about 20.64 % area is under forest where various species of trees are found, depending upon the climatic conditions.

There are about 29 species of pine which produce edible nuts and utilized at least by indigenous tribal culture in the world. Most of these nut bearing pines are haploxilon (soft) pines, although several species are of diploxilon (hard) pine group. Spain is the largest producer of Pinus pinea and China is the largest producer and exporter of Pinus koriences and Pinus sibrica nuts. Some of the famous edible pine nut species are listed in Table 1. Chilgoza (P. gerardiana Wall.), commonly known as ‘chilgoza’ or ‘Neoza’ is a member of genus Pinus that maintains a very unique position of being an integral part of the vibrant, but fragile ecosystems of the great Himalayas in the Indian sub-continent. The chilgoza pine is the only pine which is of immense social forestry importance. The earning for the bread and butter of most of tribals in HP is from the chilgoza nuts. Further, it also forms an important part of their diet as well as an item essential for some social obligations. Tribals are still adopting the age old practices for chilgoza nut extraction and further their selling to the agents at throw away prices during peak season of nuts.

Abstract

There are enormous food processing industries comprising of grains and oilseeds milling, fruits and vegetables processing, spice grinding and other food processing units in India. Also, there are many seed processing companies in the country, which are engaged in the processing and production of good quality seeds of different crops besides National Seeds Corporation and State Seed Corporations. All industries are using different type of machinery and equipment like cleaner, grader, expeller, milling machines, polishers, dehusking machines, size reduction equipment, different type of grinders, separators, treatment machinery, mixers, pulverizes etc. Besides this equipment, material-handling equipment like conveyor (belt, chain or screw type), elevators, holding bins and other handling equipment are also frequently used in the processing plants. To meet the above requirement many firms are also involved in the manufacturing of these equipment and machinery. Since, most of the seed processing equipment, dhal milling plants, material handling equipment are manufactured by the unorganized sector and hence equipment and machinery fabricated by them are not of very good quality. However, Bureau of Indian Standards has formulated the codes of manufacturing for these equipment and machinery. Seed processing equipment manufactured in India are generally copy of imported processing equipment. The manufacturers do not use materials of good quality. Framework of the machines is very poor. These machines are not also tested for their efficiency, 

Introduction
The development of the head and neck in embryos involves the formation of two primary sections at the cephalic (head) end) These include:
1. Neural Portion: This part consists of the brain, eyes, and internal ears, along with their supportive structures. In early embryonic stages, the neural region is larger and more prominent. Even as the face develops, the neural portion retains a dominant role.
2. Facial or Visceral Portion: This section encompasses the upper ends of the alimentary (digestive) and respiratory tracts. As the embryo matures, the nose and jaws undergo differentiation and growth, reducing the initial size difference between the neural and facial portions.
Pharyngeal (Branchial) Arches and Their Role
The formation of the face and neck is closely linked with the development of the pharyngeal (branchial) arches. These arches appear as bar-like ridges with intervening grooves on the sides of the embryonic head around the fourth week of gestation. Though similar to the gill arches in fish, these structures in mammals do not develop respiratory functions. Instead, they transform into various permanent structures of the adult face and neck.
• Formation of Pharyngeal Arches and Grooves: Five pairs of pharyngeal arches typically develop, separated by four ectodermal grooves known as pharyngeal grooves. Underneath these grooves, the pharyngeal endoderm pushes the mesenchyme outward, forming pharyngeal pouches.
• Fuj results in a congenital condition known as branchial fistula)
• Role of Pharyngeal Arches in Facial Formation: The first pharyngeal arch on each side splits into an upper maxillary and lower mandibular process, forming the basis of the face. The second and third arches play essential roles in forming neck structures.

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is one of the most important vegetable crops cultivated in the world. It is used as raw in salads and also used as cooked vegetable in the preparation of curries. Processed items such as tomato puree, ketchup, pickle, chutney, whole peeled tomatoes and tomato powder are also consumed considerably. It is a rich source of Vitamins A & C. Lycopene and other flavonoids in tomato serve as good source of antioxidants. Tomato occupies 5 million hectares with a productivity of 34t/ha. in the world. In India it is cultivated in an area of 0.88 million hectares with productivity of 21 t/ha.

Principle
Chutney and sauces are important food products prepared both in homes as well as commercially in India. They improve the digestion and are good appetizers. Tomatoes are a good source of vitamin C. Fresh tomatoes are very refreshing and appetizing but can not be stored for a long period. Often they are sold at distress prices during the peak harvest season and nearly 25% of the produce is spoiled due to mishandling and improper processing facilities. Such losses can be reduced by converting fresh tomatoes in to delicious product like paste, puree, juice, ketchup/sauce and powder. Generally, the sugar content in ketchup/sauce varies from 10-26%. The salt content of the product should be 1.3 to 3.4%. Good quality vinegar is essential for the preparation of high quality sauce/ketch up. It should contain 5.0-5.5% acetic acid or glacial acetic acid (100% acetic acid) and should be added when the product has thickened sufficiently. Tomato sauce/ketchup generally contains 1.25-1.50% acetic acid. In order to increase the viscosity and prevent the separation of pulp from clear juice, pectin can be added to extent of 0.1-0.2% pectin by weight of the finished product. Add 0.025% sodium benzoate as preservative to the product before bottling and then pasteurize.

ABSTRACT

Cassava has developed importance mainly as an industrial crop due to its ability to store large quantities of starch (74% to 85% of dry weight) within secondary root structures. Cassava starch is exploited as a source of human food, feed for livestock and as raw material for the food processing and chemical industries. Research accomplishments during the last four decades helped India to have the top position among cassava growing countries with an average yield of 24 t ha-1. However several traits like starch quality, high protein , post harvest deterioration etc can be altered only through the development of transgenics. The present study summarizes the results of the experiments undertaken to optimize the protocol for the development of transgenic cassava through Agrobacterium mediated gene transfer. Friable Embryogenic Callus (FEC) was developed in the cassava var. TMS 60444 us ing Murashige and Skoog (MS) media with picloram (50μM). Experiments were conducted to study the efficiency of different Agrobacterium stains viz, AGL 8, GV3101, C58C1, LBA 4404 and EH105 in transforming FEC. The strains differed in their growth rate. The strains EH105 and AGL were slower in growth as compared to other strains and the protocol was modified accordingly. Among all the strains, EH105 resulted in maximum recovery of transgenic tissues. The paper also summarizes the present status of development of transgenic cassava along with future thrusts.

1. INTRODUCTION

Wild pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is one of those fruits which has got a great economic importance. The name “pomegranate”is derived from Latin pomum (apple) and granatus (seeded) which has influenced the common name for pomegranate in many languages (like in German Granatapfel, seeded apple). It has widely been cultivated throughout India and drier parts of South-East Asia, Malaysia, the East Indies and tropical Africa. The most important growing countries of pomegranate are are Egypt, China, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Iran, Iraq, India, Mayamar and Saudi Arabia. In India, it grows in the vast tract of the hill slopes of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. One of the important centers of wild pomegranate, in Himachal Pradesh is Darlaghat, located about 50 Km from Shimla. The fruit provides substantial income to the farmers particularly where it is found growing wild such as in Mandi, Kullu, Sirmour, Solan, Shimla, and Chamba districts of Himachal Pradesh. It is found very common and gregarious in drier and sub-marginal land of mid hill regions of outer Himalayas at an elevation of 900-1800 m above mean sea level (a.m.s.l). Wild pomegranate is considered as one of the commercial fruits of Himachal Pradesh in the form of dried arils popularly known as “Anardana”. Besides Anardana, other value added products can also be prepared from this fruit as detailed in this chapter.

Dietary constitution of Indian people is mostly cereal based. However, the cereals supply chiefly carbohydrates. Therefore, there is deficiency of protein, minerals and vitamins, especially vitamin A, riboflavin, vitamin C, etc. in the diet. The dieticians advocate the intake of 125 g leafy vegetables, 75 g other vegetables and 100 g root and tuber vegetables (total 300 g) everyday because vegetables provide all the nutrient components like carbohydrates, protein, fat, minerals, vitamins and water along with roughages, which are the essential constituents of a balanced diet.

India has attained food security by increased cereal production due to green revolution. In case of vegetables, although there has been increase in production from 15 million tonnes during 1950 to 94 million tonnes in 2005 but still more vegetables are needed to meet the minimum requirement of at least 250 g per day per capita. There has also been increasing demand for fresh export and for processing industries. Moreover, there is a pressure for increasing vegetable supply caused by constantly increasing population in a world of limited acres.

Addition of new agricultural land is of course not possible. In this situation, plant breeding can be expected to contribute substantially to greater vegetable productivity. This can be accomplished not only by the breeding of basically higher yielding varieties but also by the development of varieties that help to stabilize production through resistance to various biotic and abiotic stresses.

1.    Normally economic growth refers to ___________.

(a) Growth in actual nominal per capita output

(b) Growth in potential real per capita output

(c) Growth in actual real per capita output

(d) Growth in potential real per capita output

2.    Which one of the following is not true about economic development?

(a) Problem of under developed country

(b) Its discontinuous and spontaneous change

(c) It means more output only

(d) Its innovative process

Invertebrate Development

The early stages of embryonic development determine the pattern of structures in the adult organism

The study of Drosophila mutants with disrupted development patterns has identified genes that control development

The generation of a body pattern depends on the positional information that each cell receives during development

The gene products of maternal effect genes are deposited asymmetrically into the oocyte and establish the anteroposterior and dorsoventral axes at a very early stage of development

Gap, pair-rule, and segment-polarity genes act sequentially to divide the Drosophila embryo into segments

The expression of homeotic genes controls the phenotypic characteristics of segments

The developmental fate of each cell in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is known

Heterochronic mutations disrupt the timing of developmental changes in C. elegans

6.1. Etawah Pilot Project (1948)

Started in 1948 by Mr. Albert Mayer of USA at Etawah district in UP

Funded by the Government of UP.

6.1.1. Objectives

To know the degree of productive and social improvements, through self confidence and cooperatives

To find how quickly these results could be attained

To know whether the results remain permanent even after the special pressure is withdrawn

To assess how far the results were reproductive in other places.

7.1. Sriniketan Project (1914)

Shri Rabindra Nath Tagore in 1914 established a rural reconstruction institute at Sriniketan involving youth from a group of 8 villages.

Maintained a demonstration farm, a dairy and poultry unit, an outdoor clinic, a department of cottage industries and a village school.

Villages were expected to approach these agencies through village workers who lived in villages to obtain solution of their more pressing problems.

Scheme of land development and tree plantation were given due importance.

Experiment on paddy, sugarcane and cotton were undertaken.

1. INTRODUCTION

Food additives have been used for centuries in food processing practices such as smoking and salting of meat. Prior to the advent of refrigeration, food grown in the summer had to be preserved for the winter. Salt, sugar, and vinegar were commonly used preservatives. Additives serve many roles and their common uses includes maintaining product consistency and palatability, providing leavening or controlling pH, enhancing flavour and imparting colour. A food additive can be defined in many ways. The Codex Alimentarius Commission, which develops international regulatory guidelines for food additives, provides the following definition of a food additive:

"Any substance not normally consumed as a food by itself, and not normally used as a typical ingredient of the food, whether or not it has nutritive value, the intentional addition of which to food for a technological (including organoleptic) purpose in the manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packing, packaging, transport or holding of such food results, or may reasonably be expected to result, (directly or indirectly), in it or its by-products becoming a component of or otherwise affecting the characteristics of such food. The term does not include contaminants or substances added to food for maintaining or improving nutritional qualities".

F.A.O and W.H.O in 1956 defines food additives as non-nutritive substances added intentionally to food, generally in small quantities, to improve its appearance, flavour, or storage properties. The definition did not include vitamins and minerals. Food Safety and Standard Authority of India (FASSI) in 2011 defines food additives “as any substances which is added to food for a technological (including organoleptic) purpose in the manufacture, processing, preparation or treatment of such food and affects the characteristics of such food, but does” not include contaminats or any substance(s) added to the food maintaining or improving the nutritional values. Food additives are those added intentionally to foods and are not naturally a part of a food but can be a part of food unintentionally.

Introduction

Oils and fats are utilized both for their food applications as well as for industrial purpose. As a food product, oils and fats are consumed in a variety of forms such as shortening, ghee, butter, margarine, cooking oil, salad oil, etc. Other uses include their usage in the form of lubricants, greases, soaps, cosmetics, paints as well as animal feed and biofuels. Among the Asian countries, Indonesia leads as the prime producer with more than fifty percent of the total palm oil production in the world. As a second-best producer of oils and fats, China was the major manufacturer of rapeseed as well as soybean oil in year of 2018. In general, Asian countries contributed to more than fifty percent of the total fat and oil manufacturing in the world in 2018 (Kushairi et al., 2018). Even though fats and oils are primarily utilized for food applications, there has been an increased interest in their industrial utility for the manufacture of biofuels. Fats manufactured from various animal sources like tallow or lard also contribute to a considerable quantity and compete with vegetable oils for the production of biofuels.

The resources for producing oils and fats are diverse depending on their end use, yet they are obtained from two major sources: animal sources and plant sources. Oils and fats are used as starting materials for the preparation of shortenings, margarines, and other tailored products that further act as functional ingredients in food products prepared by food processors, restaurants, and in home. They have been used for food and other variety of applications since the prehistoric times, due to their easy availability. For example, fatty tissues from animals liberate free-floating fats on being boiled, whereas oil can be pressed out from oil fruits and oilseeds.

The role of dietary oils and fats in human nutrition is also one of the important areas of interest. Over the time, oil and fat industry has provided significant contributions toward nutritional improvement of various products. With the growing concern linked between cardiovascular diseases and consumption of oil and fat products, low-calorie variants of different foods, free or low in cholesterol are also available now. Excessive fat consumption among the populations of developed countries and consequences of obesity has led to the development of reduced-fat and very-low-fat variants of foods.

Morphological characteristics

Abroma is a shrub or small tree that grows to a height of around 3-5 metres. The plant has horizontal and velvety branches that are 10-30 cm long, 6-18 cm wide, oblong or lanceolate, more or less cordate, delicately acuminate, membranous, whole, and three to five lobed with a petiole that is 1-12 cm long. The dorsal surface of the leaves is glabrous, while the ventral surface is hairy.

Floral characteristics

The plant has beautiful and intricate scarlet like flowers (5 cm in diameter) bearing purple colour. The inflorescence is a cyme. The sepals are persistent and lanceolate, measuring about 2.5 cm long. The petals are imbricate and will shortly fall off. Stamens are situated on a short staminal tube, and there are five staminodes. Each cell in the ovary is five lobed and pyramidal, with numerous ovules. The apex, the capsules are obpyramidal, membranous, finely pubescent, and truncate at the apex. Behind each carpel is a triangular wing. December and January are the fowering and fruiting months.

ABSTRACT

Diabetes is a chronic endocrinologic disorder characterized by high blood levels of glucose due to insufficient secretion of insulin by the pancreas or improper utilization of insulin by target cells. More than 120 million people from all over the globe are estimated to suffer from this malady. Many plants and their constituents have become chief ingredients of a number of pharmaceutical preparations used against diabetes. An intensive survey undertaken for over 4 years in the tribal belts of Orissa to identify the plants used in folk medicine and the methodologies employed by the herbal healers have revealed that 35 species are being employed to cure diabetes. Out of 313 patients (185 males and 128 females) interviewed, 211 (67.5%) use Gymnema sylvestre, Momordica charantia, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Tinospora cordifolia, Pterocarpus marsupium, Andrographis paniculata and Rauwolfia serpentina in one form or the other regularly. Multi-plant preparations gave 80% results whereas single plant administration gave less than 50% results. Polyherbal treatment is advocated as multi-pronged attack to achieve desired results.

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by persistent hyperglycemia due to impaired insulin production, insulin resistance or both. It affects various animal species, including dogs, cats, horses and occasionally other animals like birds and ferrets. This condition requires lifelong management and, if left untreated, can lead to severe complications such as ketoacidosis, neuropathy and organ damage. Understanding diabetes mellitus in animals, its clinical manifestations and appropriate management strategies is essential for improving the quality of life for affected animals.
Types of diabetes mellitus in Animals
There are two primary types of diabetes in animals, analogous to human
diabetes:
1. Type 1 diabetes (Insulin-dependent):
Most common in dogs,
Characterized by the destruction of pancreatic beta cells, leading to insufficient insulin production,
Typically immune-mediated or idiopathic,

Animal models in diabetes research are very common when most of the existing models are developed as a conventional model either for Type 1 or for T2D. But very often a conventional model of diabetes cannot demonstrate the specific pathogenesis of diabetes related complications. Therefore, the necessity of the individual and specific model for diabetic complications has been raised in the recent years to achieve the authentic outcomes of specific research aims. A number of animal models of diabetic neuropathy have been developed in last few decades approaching from diverse point of views. However, most of them did not receive much popularity because of their considerable number of limitations and disadvantages. In a comprehensive review, Harati [4] reported that the major handicap in studying diabetic neuropathies is the lack of a suitable animal model that addresses acute and chronic events leading to diabetic neuropathy. Hence, in this review, the pathogenesis, advantages, disadvantages, and limitations of several genetic and nongenetic animal models of diabetic neuropathy have been discussed to substantiate their efficacy for human study and in order to guide diabetes research groups to more accurately select the most appropriate models to address their specific research questions.

Collection of faecal samples: To diagnose gastro-intestinal parasites of ruminants or other animals, the parasites or their eggs/larvae must be recovered from the digestive tract of animal or human or from the faecal/stool material.
 
The faecal samples for parasitological examination should be collected from the rectum of animals. If rectum samples cannot be obtained, fresh faecal samples may be collected from the pastures. Several samples should be collected and immediately dispatched to the diagnostic laboratory in suitable containers such as: