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Veterinarian’s primary responsibility towards patients and their owners is to establish a correct diagnosis as it is a pre-requisite for rational, effective, eco-friendly and cheap treatment. Diagnosis of a disease is the crux of health problems. An accurate and prompt diagnosis helps in deciding effective treatment options, whereas incorrect and delayed diagnosis often leads to failure in disease outcome.

Diagnosis

The word “diagnosis” is derived from the Greek word “gnosis” that means knowledge. The diagnosis is not only the identification of the disease but also of disease process correlating with clinical manifestations with an understanding of disease etiology and its influence on the structure and function of the body. In fact making diagnosis is itself a process of ascertaining the nature of the disease or disorder from its signs and symptoms differentiating it from similar looking conditions.

1 Diagnosis of a disease includes

a) Determination of specific cause

b) Abnormality of structure and functions produced by causative agent

c) Clinical manifestation associated with the abnormality

d) All of the above

The Central Nervous System not only consists of the Brain but also involves the Spinal cord.

The spinal cord is responsible for conveying information from the Brain to the rest of the body via the peripheral nervous system. The spinal cord can be divided into 4 functional segments.

1. C1-C5 (Upper Cervical Segments)

2. C6-T2 (Brachial Plexus)

3. T3-L3 (Thoraco - Lumbar)

4. L4-S3 (Lumbo-Sacral Plexus )

It is important to note that the motor and sensory function of the pelvic limbs are not only controlled by the Lumbo-Sacral plexus but also involve the Thoraco Lumbar segments (T3-L3) of the spinal cord. It is important to understand not only the neuroanatomy, but also the functional anatomy before approaching a neurological patient.

Introduction

India is the second largest producer of fruits crops in the world but productivity of arid fruit crops especially in western Rajasthan is miserably low.The productivity as well as the quality of fruit crops is affected to a greater extent due to various physiological disorders. The extremes of environmental variables like changing environmental conditions such as temperature, moisture, unbalanced soil nutrients, inadequate or excess of certain soil minerals, extremes of soil pH, poor drainage and deficiency of micronutrients as well as macronutrient causes many more disorders (Kumar and Kumar, 2015). At present, the climatic scenario of arid region is also changing and the problems like frost, temperature fluctuation, moisture fluctuation, high evaporation and low precipitation as well as nutrient imbalances are becoming a challenge for cultivation of many arid fruit crops. Reasons of low productivity in hot arid ecosystem of western Rajasthan are primarily physiological or stress related disorders such as styler-end browning in ber, fruit cracking in bael and pomegranate, internal necrosis in aonla and black and white nose in date palm. The world wide approximately 70% of crop yield reduction is the direct effect by abiotic factors (Acquaah 2007). In this chapter, we discussed the problems associated with ber, pomegranate, aonla, date palm & bael especially physiological disorders which will certainly help the farmers in timely overcoming of these maladies for getting satisfactory remunerative prices from arid fruit crops under hot ecosystem of western Rajasthan.

Abstract

Bacterial diseases of solanaceous crops like tomato, brinjal, chilli, capsicum and potato are the most serious and destructive diseases affecting both under field and greenhouse conditions. Under moist field conditions they can cause epidemics to affect total crop loss, quality of the produce and reduce market value. These diseases can be distinguished from each other on the basis of their symptoms appearance of the various parts of the plant as well as by using advanced techniques of diagnosis. Diagnosis of the disease is important step to detect pathogen at early stage of disease and subsequently manage it effectively in efficient manner.

Keywords: Bacterial diseases, solanaceous crops, symptoms, diagnosis.

Introduction

Bacterial diseases of solanaceous crops like tomato, brinjal, chilli, capsicum and potato are the most serious and destructive diseases affecting both under field and greenhouse conditions. Under moist field conditions they can cause epidemics to affect total crop loss, quality of the produce and reduce market value. These diseases can be distinguished from each other on the basis of their symptoms appearanceofthe various parts of the plant as well as by using advanced techniques of diagnosis. Diagnosis of the disease is important step to detect pathogen at early stage of disease and subsequently manage it effectively in efficient manner. Therefore, the early detection of the bacterium from asymptomatic plants, soil, and water and plant residues could facilitate elimination and certainly reduce the risk of crop loss. Powerful tools for the identification and detection of the bacterium in diverse substrates (plant, seed, water and soil) are available for diagnosis of the bacterial diseases. DNA amplification of pathogen offers many advantages over classical techniques; neither purification nor cultivation of the pathogen is required and the specificity, sensitivity and response time of tests are improved. Nevertheless, the PCR method has not yet become a routine diagnostic tool for many laboratories, mainly because of the inhibition of the amplification reaction by compounds contained in crude bacterial extracts, which give false negative results or low detection sensitivity.

Cancer has gained considerable relevance in companion animals nowadays owing to the increased awareness among the people towards animal sufferings and pain. A proper diagnosis augments a better treatment regime for the suffering animal. Of all species, dog develops cancer twice as frequently as humans. Mammary tumours rank second (behind skin tumors) as the most common neoplasm in dogs but constituting more than 50% tumours in bitches. All suspected growths therefore requires careful appraisal lest it be cancerous. Diagnosis of cancer represents one of the major challenges faced by the small animal veterinarian. In majority of instances, the differentiation of a benign from the malignant tumour can be made morphologically with considerable certainty and for the same, histopathological examination remains the gold standard. A proper histopathological diagnosis however depends a lot on the collection, fixation and processing of tissues. So clinician as well as histopathologist has their own role to play in the final diagnosis of cancer in animals.

A thorough history with complete physical examination including careful palpation of the mammary glands should be performed. As there are chances that dogs may be suffering from any other systemic ailments during middle to old age. In dogs with multiple tumors, all tumors should be excised and their location and size should be noted. Histopathological examination of the excised tumors should be carried out to classify mammary gland tumors. Mammary tumors are classified based on some of the parameters i.e., tumor size, lymph nodes, metastasis. Therefore, to stage a dog with mammary tumors information of these parameters needs to be collected and recorded. If lymph nodes are palpable and/or clinically enlarged, fine-needle aspiration should be performed for cytological evaluation. The technique is less invasive but with higher accuracy. Thoracic radiographs remain the mainstay for diagnosing the metastatic condition. The mammary tumors most commonly metastasize into lungs in dogs. The staging of CMTs becomes necessary as it is likely to confer some prognostic significance and provide guidance to veterinarians to make treatment decisions.

The speed with which changes in the eye can take place is challenging. Ophthalmic problems do not lend themselves to casual examination or ‘trial and error’ therapy. Therefore, to perform safe cataract surgery with good quality outcome, uniform minimum standard of diagnostic and clinical practice needed to be in place.

Although cataract can be diagnosed by routine gross examination ofthe affected dog even then it is mandatary to develop a routine ophthalmic examinations in a consistent and organized manner to make a confirmatory diagnosis and plan the surgical technique for a favourable prognosis. A sequential examination starting right from history up to electroretinography may be performed as under:

History » Gross Examination » Menace response test » Obstacle course test » dazzle or photic blink reflex » Light induced pupillary reflexes (direct/ consensual) » Corneal reflex test »Schirmer’s tear test

Objective: To identify drought tolerant genotypes by PEG method in laboratory.

Background information:

Among different abiotic stresses, drought is considered to be most detrimental for agricultural production. A drought is a period of below-average precipitation in a given climatic region that results in prolonged shortages in water availability, whether atmospheric, surface water or ground water. A drought can last for several months or years. Drought has substantial impact on ecosystem and agricultural productivity.

Some plant species are better able to tolerate drought stress than others. Genetic variability for drought tolerance also exists within many plant species (Blum, et al. 1980). The efficient exploitation of that variability for crop improvement would be facilitated by a fast and accurate screening method for identifying drought tolerant genotypes (Clark and Mc Craig, 1982). Several methods utilizing seedlings to screen for drought tolerance have been developed using an osmoticum such as polyethylene glycol (PEG) (Singh, et al. 1984). The other synonyms of PEG are Poly ethylene oxide (PEO) and Poly oxyethylene (POE); these other chemicals depend on the molecular weight. Chemical structure of PEG may be written as H”(O”CH₂”CH₂)_n”OH (Kahovec, et al. 2002). PEG is used in certain abiotic stress experiments to produce high degree of osmotic pressure, normally in the order of 'tens of atmosphere' PEG produces osmotic pressure due to its flexible nature and water soluble polymer. PEG also makes certain specific interactions with bio-molecules. Due to above properties PEG is used as a specific chemical to produce osmotic pressure in several biochemical and bio-membrane related experiments. For some genotypes, the seedling response apparently is a good indicator of the plant's reaction to drought stress later in its life cycle. However, early screening of seed plants via seedlings tests must still be considered as a method for identifying genotypes that will tolerate drought stress in the vegetative stage (Andersen, et al. 1987).

1. California mastitis test

The California mastitis test (CMT) is conducted during milking of lactating cows. The CMT paddle is used to collect about three to four ml of fore milk from each quarter of cows after discarding few streams to which an equal volume of CMT reagent (composition mentioned below) is mixed immediately by circular motion (Fig. 1). The reaction is graded by intensity of gel formation and color changes as follows:

   Q.1.    How milk sample is collected for diagnosis of mastitis?
    Ans.    At first the end of teat is cleaned with a cotton swab dipped with 70% alcohol, then the dirt and wax are removed from the external sphincter by pressure. After this milk sample is collected in screw cap bottle.

    Q.2.    When milk sampling should be done in suspected cases of tubercular mastitis?
    Ans.    Last few streams of milking is crucial in cases of tubercular mastitis.

    Q.3.    What is the effect of freezing of milk sample on bacterial count?
    Ans.    On freezing of milk, Arcanobacter pyogenis and E. coli counts are decreased, coagulase negative bacteria counts increases whereas, Streptococcus and Staphylococcus spp. counts may be unaffected or increased.

    Q.4.    Which media is suitable for initial isolation of bacteria from milk samples?
    Ans.    Blood agar. However for isolation Streptococcus agalactiae selective media is required

DSM-5 and Diagnosis of Mental Health Issues
Mental health is a fundamental aspect of overall wellbeing and the accurate diagnosis of mental health issues is crucial for providing appropriate and effective treatment. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) is the latest reference guide used by mental health professionals to diagnose mental health conditions (Kapadia et al., 2020). The current edition, DSM- 5, builds on the goal of its predecessors of providing guidelines for diagnoses that can inform treatment and management decisions. The DSM-5 provides a comprehensive and standardized framework for the classification and diagnosis of mental disorders.
The DSM-5 represents a significant advancement in the field of psychiatry, as it incorporates a cross-cultural assessment of mental health issues and an updated classification system. (Petito et al., 2020) This detailed diagnostic criteria helps clinicians accurately identify and differentiate mental health conditions, enabling them to develop tailored treatment plans.

Diagnosis of Poisoning    
Three types of diagnosis
 a) Tentative
 b) Presumptive
 c) Confirmative based on the following conditions
 1. History
 2. Physical examination and clinical evidences    
Hyperthermia- Organochlorine;    
Hypothermia- OP compunds    
Miosis: Opium 
Mydriasis- Belladona    
Dryness of mouth (Xerostomia)- belladona;    
Moist and Hypersalivation- OPC, Carbamates and synthetic pyrethroids 
Bitter Almond    smell-Cyanide
Garlic odor in expired air- Phosphorus, Arsenic    
Mice smell- Hemlock    
Rotten Garlic/Horse raddish smell- Selenium Poisoning

• General considerations

 • Tuberculosis

 • Johne’s disease

 • Brucellosis

 • Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis

 • Campylobacteriosis

 • Tichomonosis

Introduction

Diagnostic biochemistry, is a branch of laboratory medicine that focuses on the analysis of bodily fluids to diagnose and monitor diseases. This field plays a crucial role in understanding the biochemical mechanisms underlying various conditions, enabling accurate diagnosis, prognosis, and management. The biological samples for diagnosis include blood, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, pleural fluid and tissues.

Factors Affecting Serum Enzyme Activity or Protein Level

1. Organ Mass and Enzyme Tissue Concentration:

• Higher enzyme concentrations in organs can lead to greater increases in serum enzyme activity during disease. For instance, the liver’s large mass contributes to potential increases in serum ALT activity.

2. Cell Location

• The proximity of cellular enzymes to the blood, urine, or other fluids determines the fluid in which an enzyme’s activity will increase upon cell injury. For example, renal tubular gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT) is released into urine, not blood, following injury.

Diagnostic biomarkers are measurable biological molecules that provide information about physiological or pathological conditions. This chapter examines the use of metabolomics for discovering, evaluating, and validating biomarkers for disease diagnosis, prognosis, therapeutic monitoring, and personalized medicine. It discusses different types of biomarkers, metabolomic biomarkers, biological samples, analytical platforms, biomarker-discovery workflows, and statistical analysis. Applications in cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular, liver, kidney, neurological, infectious, and metabolic diseases are considered. The chapter also explains the role of metabolomics in drug discovery, toxicology, nutrition, and clinical research. Challenges involving biological variability, analytical reproducibility, data complexity, and clinical validation are addressed alongside future opportunities involving AI and multi-omics.

Diagnostic techniques are routinely used for diagnosing different surgical conditions. The most frequently used imaging techniques in veterinary practice are radiography and ultrasonography. Radiography and ultrasonography are not suitable for each organ in large animals. In small animals most organs are suited to ultrasound images except bones and gascontaining structures such as lungs etc. Bone and gas reflect ultrasound and do not allow the sound waves to form image therefore radiography gives better diagnostic images for these organs. The liver, spleen, kidneys, prostate, gravid uterus and fluid containing organs like urinary bladder, gall bladder and major blood vessels can be better imaged with ultrasound. In buffaloes in surgical section important clinical conditions relate to urinary and digestive systems, mammary gland and perineal area.

1. Urinary System: In bovine, the cases of obstructive urolithiasis are commonly observed. These types of cases are more common in bullocks and in buffalo calves. In these cases radiography is not so useful. Sonography can be tried to take the image of ruptured urethra in bullock and can be compared with radiography. Due to ruptured urethra there will be accumulation of urine in the s/c tissue of prepuce. Due to fluid density the image will be radioopaque and will appear white and no detail of the organ can be seen. The ultrasonogram (USG) will show images of glans penis and its coverings. Different diameters of urethra and a point of rupture just behind to glans penis can be make out. Due to obstruction, The B.calves either will pass drop wise urine or there will be complete stoppage of the urine. These cases can also be easily diagnosed by ultrasonography.

The aquaculture sector in India is expanding rapidly, playing a critical role in enhancing rural livelihoods, ensuring food security, and boosting export revenue. However, disease outbreaks remain a persistent hurdle, often leading to substantial financial losses for fish farmers. To mitigate this, the deployment of user-friendly, efficient, and rapid diagnostic tools at the field level has become increasingly vital—especially in areas with limited access to laboratory facilities.
Fish disease diagnostic kits, based on immunological and molecular technologies, are designed to detect specific pathogens responsible for viral, bacterial, parasitic, and fungal infections. A major benefit of these tools is their ability to deliver results swiftly—typically within minutes or hours—enabling prompt action. In India, research bodies such as ICAR-CIFA, ICAR-CIBA, and ICAR-NBFGR have played a key role in developing and adapting these tools for local aquaculture conditions.
Efficient nucleic acid extraction is a cornerstone of field diagnostics. Rapid DNA/RNA extraction kits that function without centrifuges and under varied environmental conditions have made sample processing quicker and easier. Mobile diagnostic vans—equipped with portable lab equipment—have also been introduced in states like Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu for on-site disease surveillance and farmer training.
For detecting parasites, wet mount kits containing preloaded reagents like iodine and saline are used for direct microscopic examination of fish tissues. These kits help identify parasites such as Trichodina, Ichthyophthirius, and monogeneans, aiding in immediate diagnosis and treatment advice.

12.1. Introduction

The protocols provides guidance on the structure and content of the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) diagnostic protocols for regulated pests. The protocols describe procedures and methods for the official diagnosis of regulated pests that are relevant for international trade. They provide at least the minimum requirements for reliable diagnosis of regulated pests.

This standard sets the framework for the content of diagnostic protocols, their purpose and use, their publication and their development. Diagnostic protocols for specific regulated pests are included as annexes to this standard. Information relevant for diagnosis is provided in the diagnostic protocol on the specified regulated pest, its taxonomic position, and the methods to detect and identify it. Diagnostic protocols contain the minimum requirements for reliable diagnosis of the specified regulated pests and provide flexibility to ensure that methods are appropriate for use in the full range of circumstances.

The methods included in diagnostic protocols are selected on the basis of their sensitivity, specificity and reproducibility, and information related to these factors is provided for each of these methods. Detailed information and guidance for the detection of pests is provided on, for example, signs and/or symptoms associated with the pest, illustrations (where appropriate), developmental stages of the pest, and methods for detecting the pest in a commodity, as well as methods for extracting, recovering and collecting the pests from plants.

Introduction

To maintain optimum reproductive status early diagnosis of reproductive problems is important. Various advance diagnostic techniques are available for diagnosis of reproductive problems. Some of them are still in early stages of development or some though available; are not widely used due to various constrains.The various diagnostic techniques used in animal reproduction are ultrasonography, Doppler ultrasonography, endoscopy, laparoscopy, hormonal assays, vaginal cytology, x ray etc.

Accurate history and Thorough examination of reproductive tract

Accurate history is a powerful tool of enormous clinical value. Behavioral problems due to pain or psychological factors can also be ruled out on the basis of adequate history of the patient. Tentative differential diagnosis can be made by taking history of previous breedings.Through digital and vaginiscopic exanimation of reproductive tract helps to rule out anatomical abnormalities, which may interfere with natural mating. It also helps in diagnosis of fertile phase of oestrus cycle. In cases of refusal to mate due to anatomical problems like septum, narrow passage or due to behavioral problems AI can be performed. Vaginoscopic examination aids vaginal cytology in deciding right time of natural service or insemination in proper breeding management or abnormal oestrus cycle.