eChapters

“Curriculum” is seen often as a critical issue during discussions on quality of agricultural education, being considered variously as content, as product and as process. It is easy to make the assumption that a common understanding of curriculum, but in practice this is far from the case, with a host of definitions, approaches and ideological standpoints. Even though a dialogue on curriculum theory is well established, there is still a strong tendency in practice to understand curriculum as a list of content, often developed in considerable detail, that students should be taught.

To explain the main concepts and elements of a participatory curriculum development process

To present practical skills and knowledge leading to the effective design of teaching and learning

To build confidence of the learners in applying new methods and approaches to teaching and field extension work.

To demonstrate application of participatory approach in development of Extension curriculum

This Toolkit emphasizes an active learning approach, based on the process of experience, reflection and action. The key principle is that people do not learn simply by passive listening. They need to be involved from beginning of the training and designing of the program.

Participatory curriculum development (PCD) in extension education is an emerging approach to help and improve the quality of education in farm universities. The main steps of the PCD approach adopted here have high practical utility for the design of formal course contents for the Undergraduate and Postgraduate courses in Agricultural Extension. A great deal of thinking is required while deciding on how much participation will be required from which stakeholders, at what level(s).

As stated before, a careful assessment of the existing curriculum is essential before any modification is undertaken and must take into account the country’s education policy, political, economic, demographic, cultural, social and technological environment. Problems of farmers to be solved, needs to be satisfied, and priorities to be identified and addressed and then only the recommendations made for action.

Curriculum reorientation is necessary, when any one in use is no longer responsive to the needs, interests and unable to meet the demands of the farming community to which it is intended to serve. In any case a number of factors, such as those listed below, must be taken into consideration while reorientation:

There should be an analytical assessment of the existing agricultural extension curriculum in order to justify any proposed reorientation.

Learning needs of the farm university graduates and farmers should be reviewed from the point of view of both individual learner requirements and national development needs.

Introduction

The minimum dissolved oxygen (DO) level that fish can safely tolerate depends upon temperature and to a certain extent the species. Volubility of oxygen increases as temperature decreases. In ponds, DO can change dramatically over a 24-hour period. During the day oxygen is produced by photosynthesis, the process by which green plants convert water and carbon dioxide in the presence of light, to oxygen and carbohydrates. During the night and day oxygen is consumed by respiration, the process by which plants and animals use oxygen to produce carbon dioxide as they burn carbohydrates, but in the day photosynthesis usually produces more oxygen than is used.

Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. These shifts may be natural, such as through variations in the solar cycle. But since the 1800s, human activities have been the main driver of climate change, primarily due to burning fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas. (https://www.un.org/ en/climatechange/what-is-climate-change) While it is possible to achieve enhanced food production to meet the demands of growing populations, the prevailing negative environmental trends, if continued, might cause crises in many parts of the world (Molden, 2007). The effects of climate change on agriculture can take place through changes in average temperatures, rainfall, and climate extremes (e.g., heat waves); changes in pests and diseases; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods; and changes in sea level. (Anonymous, 2014A)

Background and Technology Intervention

Tanks are one of the oldest structures in India that has been serving as an important water harvesting device since time immemorial. The total number of irrigation tanks in India is estimated to be around 2, 08,000 of which, three states in South India viz., Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka accounts for nearly 1, 27,000 tanks irrigating 1.8 million hectares of land (Gandhiraj, 2009, Siva Subramanian, 2006, Sakthivadivel et al. 2004, Vaidhyanathan, 2001). In Tamil Nadu for instance, there are more than 39,000 tanks at present many of which were constructed during 18th and 19th centuries by kings, zamindars and Britishers (Jagadeesan, M 2011; Palanisami and Easter 2000: 9). Similarly in Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh, tank irrigation developed extensively since ancient times. The district of Warangal and Karim Nagar have several old irrigation tank structures.

Introduction

Though the potential benefits generated by the drip irrigation method are apparent, the adoption of drip irrigation is yet to be widely promoted across different regions and states in India. Several factors such as huge initial investment, small size of holding, lack of technical support, nature of cropping pattern, access to water and socio-economic conditions of farmers etc. (Namara et al, 2005, Suresh Kumar, 2012) are constraining adoption of drip irrigation. In some cases, even after the adoption of drip irrigation, the farmers, particularly, the small farmers have often discontinued use of drip irrigation for several reasons such as due to lack of maintenance, irrelevant cultural background, and unreliable water supply (Kulecho and Weatherhead, 2005).

Introduction

Technical innovation is a process by which new or improved technologies are developed and brought to widespread use (Ambuj Sagar, 2013). Technical innovations are interlinked by research, development, demonstration and deployment which involves a range of organizations and personals with institutional arrangements underpinning the growth and advancement of different kinds of technologies. In the area of water productivity, technical innovations has helped expand water supplies through improved exploration and recovery techniques, increased water use efficiency, improved water availability and reduced environmental impact of water and its usage.

Background

Analysing changes in the cropping patterns is an important prerequisite for optimization and evaluation of water use efficiency and water resource management. Cropping pattern changes in India could not only be seen as resulting from the pursuit for higher economic returns, but also as a feedback response to limited water resources. Although a systematic framework is still needed for future cropping pattern planning in the country by taking food security, continued agricultural expansion and other constraints into consideration, the existing cropping pattern may provide an insight with which alternative cropping patter may be proposed for a right intervention in enhancing water productivity and food security.

About the Lower Bhavani Project

The Lower Bhavani Project (LBP) is located in Tamil Nadu in Bhavani River, irrigates 83980 ha in two seasons in a year. The canal water supply is provided for one wet crop from August to December (41885 ha) and one dry crop from January to April (41885 ha). The cultivated area under LBP in Erode and Coimbatore districts are irrigated lands with canals and groundwater, and rainfed crop lands (with supplemental groundwater irrigation).

About 60 per cent of total arable land (142 million ha) in India is rain-fed, characterized by low productivity, low income, low employment with high incidence of poverty and a bulk of fragile and marginal land. Watershed development program is, therefore, considered as an effective tool for addressing many of these problems and recognized as a potential engine for agricultural growth and development in fragile and marginal rain-fed areas. The Government of India has accorded high priority to the holistic and sustainable development of rain-fed areas through the integrated watershed development program since the 7th Five Year Plan (1985-90) and since then a number of watershed programs have been specifically launched in the rain-fed areas with the sole objective to improve the livelihood of poor rural households in a sustainable manner.

Background and Technology Intervention

Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) describes planned storage and treatment of water in aquifers which can provide cheapest form of new safe water supply for towns and small communities (British Geological Survey, 2006). It is a part of a groundwater manager’s tool which is useful for replenishing and re-pressurising depleted aquifers, controlling saline intrusion or land subsidence as well as improving water quality through filtration and chemical and biological processes. MAR can enhance volumes of groundwater abstracted through different package of measures and restore groundwater balance. It also plays a vital role in smoothing out supply and demand fluctuations, stabilizing over-exploited groundwater levels, reducing evaporation losses and runoff, maintaining environmental flows in streams and rivers, improving water quality and augmenting the reuse of waste and storm water. In recent times, MAR uptake has been very limited.

Background and Technology Intervention

Andhra Pradesh is India’s fourth largest state in terms of area and fifth in terms of population. Its capital Hyderabad is one of the largest and fastest growing cities in Southern India occupying 650 square kilometers along the bank of Musi River. History says that, the fifth sultan, Muhammad Quli Qutab Shah established Hyderabad on the banks of Musi River in 1591 to avoid the acute water shortages experienced at Golconda during his rule. Today, due to rapid urbanization and increased economic activities, the river has become a receptacle of untreated domestic and industrial waste dumping out of Hyderabad. It is estimated that nearly 350 MLD (Million Liters a Day) of polluted water and sewage originating from the twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad flow into the river. Though this river water which is at the downstream of the city remains highly polluted and considered a major disaster in Hyderabad, it is a significant resource for semi-arid and peri-urban population where the cultivation of fodder grass, paddy and vegetables have contributed largely to the household food security.

Background and Technology intervention

Instead of open channel irrigation, intervention of PVC pipeline system using gravitational hydraulic pressure can convey efficient water without the use of power. This will reduce conveyance loss and improve timely and equitable distribution of water to all farmers. As large number of open wells with pump sets are available, uninterrupted power supply is not available for on time irrigation during summer seasons. During such times, savings from tank water will be more helpful allowing the farmer to manage groundwater greatly.

Background and Technology Intervention

To increase the water use efficiency coupling piped network and micro irrigation, Department of Agricultural Engineering along with the Tamil Nadu Government introduced a project on “Water conveyance works of modernization of on-farm irrigation network in 5(R) and 7(R) sluices Parambikulam Aliyar Project (PAP)” covering a total area of 109.86 acres in both the sluices.

Significance of this project is to improve the water use efficiency in canal command areas where the farmers were unable to cultivate annual / long term crop due to alternate supply of water in each zone. PAP command area has 4 zones and each zone receives water once in 135 days in a 2 year span through open channel leading farmers to adopt flood irrigation.

Background and Technology Intervention

The primary resource affected by the climate change is water. In arid and semi-arid regions of India, any shortfall in water supply due to climate change will enhance competition for water use for a wide range of economic, social and environmental applications. The population growth with the improved living conditions also increases the demand for food production and thereby increasing the demand of water in multiple folds in the river basins (UNESCO-WWAP, 2009). The major portion of water available in the Indian River basins are used for cultivating rice and thus poses major challenges to water management, especially during unfavourable climatic conditions.

Background and Technology Intervention

Owing to the subsequent monsoon failures and unavailability of water for irrigation, Tamil Nadu farmers have switched over to drip irrigation which is not only saving huge quantity of water for them, but also preventing irrigation run off and providing deep water percolation. In Tamil Nadu, usage of drip irrigation is prevalent among vegetable and fruit growers and organic farmers.

To relieve the plants from stress or strain of water logging and water scarcity, Tamil Nadu Horticulture Development Agency has played a key role by rightly intervening the farmers through drip irrigation technology and thereby improving water use efficiency.

Introduction

Recognizing the importance and impact initiatives were taken for starting National Horticulture Mission, announced by Honorable Prime Minister on 15 August 2003. Crop diversification has become an imperative for India’s agri-economy. To address this need and to give further impetus to encouraging growth in cultivation of horticultures, vegetables, flowers, species etc. a National Horticultural Mission has been launched. Its main target will be doubling India;s horticultural production by 2010. Sub sequentially, National Horticuture Mission was launched during Tenth Plan with effect from 2005 2006 for holistic development of horticultural crops, having competitive advantages.