eChapters

Etiology

The condition is characterized by formation of granuloma to pyogranulomatous dermatitis with paniculitis. The causative organism is normally present in the macrophage which may be Mycobacterium tuberculosis, M? bovis and M? microti.

Etiology

The condition is usually caused by implantation of low virulent saprophytic bacteria due to traumatic injury. These organisms stimulate cell mediated immune response by persistence of antigen in the tissue.

Etiology

Superficial pyoderma usually occurs in the epidermis and upper infundibulum of the hair follicle. It usually heals without scar formation and commonly caused by Gram positive cocci Staphylococcus spp., particularly exfoliative toxin of this species.

Etiology

Atopic dermatitis is genetically predisposed to allergic skin disease. It consists of atopy and hereditary cause to produce IgE mediated allergic reaction to environmental allergens.

Immunohistochemistry reveals the presence of Langerhans cell proliferation and strong positive expression of IgE in skin tissue sections.

Gross pathology

Etiology

 Acral lick dermatitis is usually observed on extremities of dogs and the probable etiology is persistent licking. It is also caused due to self-trauma or mutilation.

1. Calibration of Milk Butyrometer

Introduction

Butyrometer is used for determination of fat for milk and milk products by Gerber method. The milk butyrometer is a graduated vessel, which are designed in such a way that the internal volume of each unit is 0.125 ml which is corresponding to 1 percent fat. Sometimes due to manufacturer’s error, the volume of one unit of milk butyrometer is not exactly equal to 0.125 which leads to subsequent error in results in milk fat. So before starting to use a new butyrometer, it is essential to calibrate for its efficiency in the laboratory. Mercury is used to calibrate milk butyrometer.

Apparatus

Milk butyrometer (0 – 10% graduation), analytical balance

1. Preparation of Standard Sodium Hydroxide Solution

 Introduction

 When oxalic acid reacts sodium hydroxide, sodium oxalate and water are

form. Phenolphthalein indicator detects the end point by its characteristics

colour change.

 Apparatus

 Burettes, pipette, volumetric flask, beaker

 Reagents

 • Oxalic acid crystals

 • Sodium hydroxide – 0.1 N approximate

 • Phenolphthalein solution – 0.1 percent in ethyl alcohol

Procedure Preparation of 0.1 N oxalic acid solution 1. Weight accurately 1.575 g of oxalic acid into a 250 ml beaker using a weighing bottle. 2. Add some distilled water to the beaker and dissolve the oxalic acid with the help of glass rod. 3. Transfer the solution into a 250 ml volumetric flask through a funnel. 4. Wash the beaker 3- 4 times with small quantities of distilled water and transfer the washing into the flask. 5. Make up the volume up to the mark with distilled water and mix thoroughly. 6. Preparation of approximately 0.1 N sodium hydroxide solution 7. Weigh about 4.25 g of sodium hydroxide pellets and dissolve into 200 ml of distilled water.

1 Detection of Starch Introduction

Starch is widely available in several forms such as wheat flour, corn flour and commercially manufactured starch. It is extensively used by adulterators to raise the SNF content in the milk. When high amounts of starch are added to milk, it can cause diarrhea due to the indigestion of starch in colon. Apart from this, accumulation of starch in the body may prove very fatal for diabetic patients. In this method, starch in milk can be detected by using iodine solution. Iodine from the iodine solution gets absorbed on the starch molecule surface and resultant product of adsorption has deep blue colour.

Reagents

 • Potassium iodide

 • Iodine solution - 1% (Add 1 g of iodine and 5 g of potassium iodide in

distilled water and dilute to 100 ml)

Sample Preparation

Sample should be taken at six or more points on the top of the surface by means of a tubular trier of sufficient length to extend to the bottom of the barrel. Remove this cores and transfer to clean, dry, air tight container and seal immediately.

Before opening sample for analysis, make homogenous either by shaking or by alternately rolling and inverting container. If lump are present, sift sample through No 20 sieve, rubbing material through sieve and tapping vigorously, if necessary.

Avoid sampling on rainy day or when humidity is high, so as to reduce moisture absorption from air.

1 Determination of Moisture Content by Moisture Balance Introduction

In this procedure, infra-red radiation is used to accomplish rapid drying. The tester has a sensitive torsion balance which permits rapid determination directly from the balance scale, eliminating the need for computing or calculation to obtain results. This method is useful for the in-process determination of moisture because the results may be obtained in minutes.

Sample Preparation

a) Plain products: Sample should be softened at room temperature. Since the melted fat tends to separate and rise to the surface, it is not advisable to soften the sample by heating on a water bath or oven or flame. Mix thoroughly by stirring with spoon or eggbeater or by pouring back and forth between beakers.

b) Ice-cream containing Fruits and Nuts: Fill one third part of the cup with ice cream sample. Melt the product at room temperature and mix until insoluble particles are finely divided (about 3-5 minutes for fruit pieces and upto 7 minutes for nut pieces). Otherwise, the product may be ground in a porcelain or glass pestle and mortar. Don’t let temperature exceed 25oC at any time during softening and mixing steps. If fat separation occurs, discard sample otherwise immediately pour mixture into wide jar and cap tightly. If allowed to stand, shake vigorously before taking sample for analysis.

Sample Preparation

 Cheese sample is prepared by passing through 8 mesh sieve three times or

grate sample and mix thoroughly or grind to a uniform mass in a glass pestle

and mortar. Keep the sample in an airtight container until the time of analysis.

 1 Determination of Moisture Content in Cheese

 Introduction

The moisture content of cheese is defined as the loss in mass, expressed as a

percentage by mass when the product is heated in a hot air oven at 102 ± 2°C

to constant mass.

1 Analysis of Cream

 Sample Preparation

Warm the cream sample to 40 - 50oC if the sample is very viscous. Then pour from one vessel to another 3 to 4 times to mix well. Sample should be tested daily and always within three days after collection since enzymatic deterioration of the cream will cause low tests.

1.1 Determination of Fat Content in Cream

 1.1.1 Gerber Method

 Introduction

Sulphuric acid is added to cream in order to dissolve the protein and other solids and create heat which liquefy and de-emulsify the fat. Iso-amyl alcohol is added to aid the separation of fat. Upon centrifugation, fat being lighter will be separated on top of solution in the cream butyrometer.

1 Analysis of Chemical Composition of Milk

 1.1 Determination of Acidity of Milk

 Introduction

The acidity of milk can be determined by titrating the milk against standard sodium hydroxide solution using an indicator like phenolphthalein and is expressed in the terms of lactic acid. Though natural acidity in milk is due to its constituents such as casein, albumin, citrates, phosphates and carbon dioxide but it is customary to express in terms of lactic acid. As one gram equivalent weight of an alkali neutralizes one gram equivalent weight of an acid, the volume of standard alkali required to neutralize lactic acid of fixed volume of milk gives percent acidity of milk according to the reaction.

2.1 Introduction

India is known for its richness in bio-resources including floristic diversity and the associated cultural diversity that evolved over time and holds a vast amount of indigenous traditional knowledge (ITK) assembled over millenniums. The ability to convert this knowledge into wealth of products for social good through the process of innovation based on validation of available information holds great promise. In-depth studies using the modern technologies and further examination of potential sources will determine the future of India in the 21st century, commonly referred to as the century of scientific knowledge and technological expertise/advancements that belongs to Asia/India. In this regard, five technologies namely, biochemistry, biotechnology, herbal technology, information technology, and nanotechnology are going to be the most powerful elements that are crucial for ensuring prosperity, security, and welfare of the people of the nations and the globe at large. Production of an inventory of the medicinal aromatic plants with the associated knowledge evolved and documented over millenniums under different Indian traditional medicinal systems shall be the key in promoting and strengthening their exploitation and use under various herbal medicinal systems and/or under an integrated innovative combination of these with modern medicinal systems.

1.1 Perspective

From the very dawn of evolution of human beings, man has been using plants as food, for wellness and as medicine to alleviate diseases and discomfort. People living in different parts of the world, both new and old, in the centres of some of the oldest civilizations, had selected organisms from time immemorial for food and medicine by a process of trial and error or even by experimentation with the biological resources, particularly among the plants growing around them. These have been referred to as ethnic food/traditional food and ethnic medicine/traditional medicine. India is one of the mega centres of biodiversity, and that of the ethnic diversity, that evolved over millennia with settlement of diverse races coming from different regions of the world, besides the indigenous people. Thereby, it inhabits some of the most diverse cultural traditions. This process has led to further evolution of some of the oldest indigenous civilizations originated in the Indian Subcontinent with amalgamation of exotic traditions and the knowledge. Integration of the knowledge associated with the use of plants with medicinal properties has enriched its great heritage of medicinal plant use, the Ayurveda, i.e., the knowledge of life and longevity, dating back to the pre-historic and the early Vedic period.

8.1 Introduction

Considering increased awareness and interest in using herbal products because of their safer nature, the world market of traditional medicinal and aromatic plants is growing at a very fast pace. The global herbal industry is projected to be worth 5 trillion US$ by 2050 (the world bank report, 2000). These resources not only provide primary health care, but also nutraceutical support for wellness. Also, it has been experienced that they may help in curing some of the deadly and painful diseases such as cancer, HIV, AIDS, rheumatism, arthritis etc. India, due to its rich heritage in use of medicinal and aromatic plants under various traditional medicinal systems, which are important source of information about plant properties and use, can become a major player in the global context and can increase its market share substantially. To achieve this, an effective, efficient, and vibrant program is required to cover various aspects of management, research, and development.

7.1 Introduction

The occurrence of different medicinal and aromatic plant species is often associated with a specific ecology and thereby, to a biogeographical or phytogeographical region of the Indian Subcontinent. The Indian Subcontinent is a confluence of at least two biogeographical realms, i.e., Palearctic or Palaearctic (Himalayas) and Oriental (Sino Indian- mainland India to much of insular the Southeast Asia). The most acknowledged classification of biogeographical zones was proposed by Udvardy (1975), which recognized 12 biogeographical provinces in India falling in these two realms. Based on varied climate, terrain, and faunistic information, Roger and Panwar (1988) tried to distinguish India into 10 distinct bio-geographical regions. Their classification did account for distribution of the plant-communities because they provided information about key components to identify the probable habitat for the presence of animals. An attempt for phytogeographical zonation, based on type of vegetation by Gadgil and Meher Homji (1990), distinguished 16 phytogeographical zones. Rodgers et al. (2002) further revised their biogeographical maps using geographical information system (GIS) techniques. They distinguished 10 biogeographical zones and 26 biotic provinces.

6.1 Introduction

The World Health Organization (WHO) compiled a list of 20,000 medicinal plants used in different parts of the world. An estimated 15,000 medicinal plant species, forming about 21% of the total plant species used for medicinal purposes in the world, fall in the endangered category (Schippmann et al., 2006). In India, medicinal plant species used under different traditional systems to a large extent are still gathered and collected from the wild in from of roots, bark, wood, stem and even the whole plant causing severe destruction of their habitat, resulting in loss of species/populations and erosion of genetic diversity. The remaining few are cultivated as crop plants, but marginally because of lack of assured market and can be safely termed as commercially under utilized and are also under threat. Therefore, despite India being rich in plants species with medicinal properties, genetic diversity within the species and the associated traditional knowledge regarding their use, the lack of awareness regarding the loss of species and genetic diversity due to destructive harvesting from the wild and many other factors, such as infrastructure development, iintroduction of exotic species is causing depletion of genetic diversity or loss of indigenous MAPs.

5.1 Introduction

Considering the richness of floristic diversity of India represented by 47,513 plant species, of which around are 9,500 reported to be of ethnobotanical botanical significance and around 7,500 - 8900 of ethnomedicinal importance (Anonymous, 1994; Pareek et al., 2005). It has been estimated that of these, around 5,000 plant species have been investigated in some detail in search for potential sources of wellness or health or medicinal drugs to cure various human ailments and diseases. As discussed in the previous sections, the Indian literature on medicinal aromatic plants formally documents information on about 2,500 medicinal and aromatic plants under various traditional systems with sufficient details. In addition, indigenous traditional knowledge exists for another 4,000-4,500 medicinal plant species based on long time experience/observations and their use by various tribes and communities and the individual clan or families in cure of specific ailments. However, this knowledge predominantly exists in oral traditions, which are under danger because of the threat to these traditional orthodox societies and loss of the dialect or languages in which they exist.

4.1 Introduction

The adverse effect of non-vegetarian diet, particularly red meat, on human health and on environment due to destruction/clearing of forest for raising more pasture and to increase the industrial production of grains for animal feed have led to greater greenhouse gas emissions, and environmental pollution due to extensive use of inorganic fertilizers, fungicides, pesticides. Clearing of forest has also caused extinction of plant species. For these reasons, greater interest has been generated in vegetarian diet based on the direct consumption of whole grains, legumes, nuts, fruits, and vegetables that are easily assimilated by the human body, nutritionally more efficient, and have least impact on the environment. In fact, the healthfulness of vegetarian diets has been found to be strongly correlated with sustainability of agriculture because of easy affordability of plant-based foods. Vegetarian people have been often referred to as vegan and pescatarian (including fish and other seafood). Most pescatarians include dairy and eggs as well. Similarly, allopathic medicines, which are synthetic inorganic concentrated drugs, have adverse effect on non-targeted organs, besides being expensive.