eChapters

Introduction

Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF), generally found in legumes, is a valuable nature’s gift through which atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by symbiotically associated rhizobia that make it available to plants. Among cereals, rice (Oryza sativa) is an important staple food crop that feeds a large proportion of the world population [1]. There is tremendous pressure on agriculturists worldwide to increase the yield to meet growing consumption to feed a world population increasing day by day. However, unlike symbiotic plant–microbe interactions commonly observed in legumes, in several cereal crop plants including Oryza sativa, endophytic associations have been observed [2-8].

Introduction 
As we have journeyed through the preceding chapters, meticulously examining the foundational understanding of crop-weather interactions, the sophisticated development of crop simulation models and decision support systems, the invaluable contributions of indigenous technical knowledge, and the systematic formulation of precise and customized agroadvisories, we now arrive at the decisive stage of this entire endeavor of dissemination of Agromet Advisories. The profound scientific insights and meticulously crafted recommendations, no matter how accurate or relevant, remain inert unless they effectively reach the hands, ears, or screens of the farmers who need them most, in a format they can readily understand and apply. This chapter, therefore, is dedicated to unraveling the complex, yet essential, process of ensuring that crucial agrometeorological information successfully traverses the last mile to translate into tangible impact on agricultural practices and outcomes across diverse landscapes. The challenge of effective dissemination extends far beyond a simple broadcast; it necessitates the establishment of a robust, dynamic, and multichannel communication ecosystem. This ecosystem must be meticulously designed to account for the rich tapestry of socio-economic, technological, and literacy disparities prevalent within farming communities. Historically, traditional methods such as the communal gathering around a radio for a farmer‘s bulletin or face-to-face discussions during village meetings formed the bedrock of knowledge transfer, leveraging established social networks and widely accessible, albeit low-tech, communication tools. However, the relentless march of the digital revolution has fundamentally reshaped this landscape, unveiling an unprecedented potential for expansive reach, enhanced personalization, and rapid delivery of information, thereby opening a myriad of new avenues for disseminating critical advisories with remarkable speed and specificity.

3.1 Introduction

One of the most important functions to the AAS units is to widely disseminate the advisory bulletins among the user community. A unit cannot be considered operational unless its bulletins are reaching the target masses. The dissemination is one way communication which is broadly speaking the process by which human beings share information, knowledge, experience, ideas and motivation. 

Introduction

Both the technology generation system and the technology transfer system play crucial roles in agriculture. For a very long time, research through the National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS), such as the Department of Agriculture Services (DARS), and other research institutions, such as Universities, has produced a vast body of innovations and technological information (Drechsel et al?, 2004). Despite the many promising improvements that researchers have produced, there is still very little application for them (Doss, 2005). A greater knowledge of the mechanisms underlying the distribution and acceptance of agricultural research output is necessary to know the cause of the low levels of technology uptake (Garforth, 1998).

3.1 Introduction

Diffusion is a broader term, which encompasses unplanned as well as planned and directed spread of an innovation. In this chapter, the emphasis is on dissemination of integrated pest management (IPM) technologies. A wide variety of methods and media are being used for delivering IPM technologies depending upon the type of information and the stage of implementation (Whalon et al., 1982). The mass media methods such as print and electronic media are useful for creating awareness rather than directly assisting the farmer to use IPM technology (Lumber et al., 1985). Mass media methods are less intense methods than face to face method namely farmer field school.

3.2 Methods Used for Dissemination of IPM Technologies

Different methods used for dissemination of IPM technologies include the use of mass media including electronic and print media, field days, extension visits, video movies, plant clinics, IPM clubs, picture songs, IPM websites farmer field school etc.

Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to oxygen gas that is dissolved in water. Fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills. There are three main sources of oxygen in the aquatic environment: 1) direct diffusion from the atmosphere; 2) wind and wave action; and 3) photosynthesis. Oxygen depletion refers to low levels of DO and may result in fish mortality. A concentration of 5 mg/L DO is recommended for optimum fish health. Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific, however, most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mg/L. Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mg/L. If fishes gulfing on the water surface and also show the low swimming in the water it indicates deficiency of dissolved oxygen in pond.

Introduction

Indian economy is characterized predominance of rural population and is heavily dependence on agriculture sector. The major challenges to the growth and prosperity of the country are unemployment and poverty. Various attempts by government in the past have yielded only marginal success. The problem of rural unemployment and poverty can be solved by creating some new avenues for employment generation in the rural areas. Majority of farmers are still using traditional farming practices. The concept of entrepreneurship in agriculture can play vital role in improving their livelihood security and alleviating the poverty.  The individuals involved in farming/industrial activity should posses drive, ambition, foresight, and imaginations to break their traditional barrier, overcome social inertia, transform theory into practice. The individuals performing these functions are the entrepreneurs, and their enterprising ability and skill can be termed as entrepreneurship (Kothari, 1989).

Distillation of rose oil and rose water:

For distillation of rose oil and rose water initially the fresh rose flower are hydro distilled. The oil and water are collected together. The oil which floats upon the water is separated by decantation get oil directly, while the water is re-distillated. The oil obtained from re-distillation is called recovered oil or water oil. The direct oil and water oil are then combined to make the commercial rose oil.

The water obtained from the second re-distillation step is the commercial rose water

The goal of food for all can be achieved only through sustained efforts in producing, saving and sharing food grains.

The Supreme Court of India has rendered great service by arousing public, professional and political concern about the co-existence of rotting grain mountains and mounting hungry mouths. In several African countries hunger is increasing because food is either not available in the market, or is too expensive for the poor. Food inflation is showing no signs of abating. In our country, chronic hunger is largely poverty induced. The progress made in achieving the UN Millennium Development Goal No. 1, namely, reducing hunger and poverty by half by the year 2015, has been far from satisfactory and the available data indicate that we may have years and years to go before we achieve this target. Globally, the number of persons going to bed hungry has increased from 800 million in the year 2000 to over one billion. The position is likely to get worse in the near term, since the prices of wheat, rice and maize are going up in the global market. Adverse growing conditions in Russia, Canada and Australia are partly responsible for the recent escalation in grain prices. Nearer home, Pakistan is recovering from serious floods. According to a recent UN report, 3.2 million ha of standing crops and 200,000 heads of livestock have been lost. 

ABSTRACT

A Distributed Database is a database that is under the control of a central database management system (DBMS) in which storage devices are not all attached to a common CPU and may be dispersed over a network of computers interconnected through internet. To ensure that the Distributive databases are up to date and current, there are two processes: replication and duplication. Replication involves using specialized software that looks for changes in the distributive database. Once the changes have been identified, the replication process makes all the databases look alike. The replication process can be very complex and time consuming depending on the size and number of the distributive databases. Duplication on the other hand is not as complicated. It would basically identify one database as a master and then duplicates that database. This is to ensure that each distributed location has the same data. In the duplication process, changes to the master database only are allowed. This is to ensure that local data will not be overwritten. Both of the processes can keep the data current in all distributive locations. The most commonly used databases are DB2, MySQL, Oracle, MS-Access, Ingres, Firebird, MS SQL Server, Teradata, Sybase, Informix and Postgre SQL. Use of single or combination of databases depending on the requirement is key to success. This distributed data management with different levels of transparency like network transparency, fragmentation transparency, replication transparency, etc. Increase reliability and availability of data to the users as well as reduces the database downtime and increase the database performance, reduces network failure due to reduction of network traffic.

13.1 Introduction

Distributed optical fiber sensors are those sensors which monitor a single measurand at a large number of locations or continuously over the path of the optical fiber. The measurand can be a physical or a chemical quantity. The distributed optical fiber sensor generally consists of a common light source, optical fiber to carry light to the sensing probes and a return fiber to carry modulated light to a photodetector. These sensors can utilize any kind of light modulations described earlier. The advantages associated with distributed sensing are reduced number of components and hence the cost, reduced weight and cabling, and electrical passivity. The applications include the measurements of temperature, pressure, strain, current and chemical concentration. If the measurand is monitored continuously along the fiber length then the sensor is called intrinsic distributed sensor. If it is measured at a finite number of locations then the sensor is called quasi-distributed sensor. The quasi-distributed sensor has a number of advantages over intrinsic distributed sensor. In quasi-distributed sensor, spatial resolution is not as important as in intrinsic distributed sensor provided that individual sensors can be clearly resolved. Further, in quasi-distributed sensing, the sensor elements can be tailored in terms of responsivity and range to meet the specific needs of the application. In this chapter we shall describe various kinds of distributed sensing approaches and few optical fiber distributed sensors.

Soil is a bioorganic - mineral complex of the loose surface layer of the earth’s crust. Soil microbiology is the science that deals with the millions of microscopic forms of life found in the soil. It is stated that one hectare - foot (one hectare to a depth of 30cm) contains 2 to 10 metric tons of living microorganisms. Soil microorganisms are in a constant struggle for existence and are believed to be in a state of dynamic equilibrium. Without microorganisms, the soil would be an inactive geological mass incapable of supporting plant life and without plant life, animal life would not be possible. This soil population consists mainly of bacteria, fungi, actinobacteria, algae, and protozoa. The soil ecosystem includes these microbial groups as well as the inorganic and organic constituents of a given site. The collections of cells represented in the community are considered as distinct populations. All the inhabitants of the particular locality make up the community.

Types of Microorganisms in Soil

Living organisms both plants and animals, constitute an important component of soil. The pioneering investigations of several early microbiologists showed for the first time that the soil was not an inert static material but a medium pulsating with life. The soil is now believed to be a dynamic or rather a living system, containing a dynamic population of organisms/microorganisms. Cultivated soil has relatively more population of microorganisms than the fallow land, and the soils rich in organic matter contain much more population than sandy and eroded soils. Microbes in the soil are important to us in maintaining soil fertility and productivity, cycling of nutrient elements in the biosphere, and sources of industrial products such as enzymes, antibiotics, vitamins, hormones, organic acids, etc. At the same time certain soil microbes are the causal agents of human and plant diseases.

ABSTRACT

Presence of mangrove ecosystems on coastline, save lives and property during natural hazards such as cyclones, storm surges and erosion. This study is undertaken to assess the distribution of mangroves in Tamil Nadu. Geographical Information System, Remote Sensing and GPS (Global Positioning System) were used for mapping the mangrove forests. Mangrove wetland map and species zonation maps have been done using didital analysis of Remote Sensing data and ground truth information. The total area of mangroves found in Tamil Nadu and in Puducherry is around 4100ha.

1. INTRODUCTION

Mangroves are typical, tropical specialized trees growing in the saline and brackish water system. Mangrove plants live in muddy and wet saline soils. They are trees associated with shrubs, growing both on the sheltered coast and inland, lining the bank of estuaries and rivers. They are an ecological group of evergreen plant species, belonging to different families, but possessing marked similarities in their physiological characteristics and structural adaptations. Mangrove areas are associated with high leaf production and leaf fall and rapid decomposition of the litter.

Mangrove forests perform multiple ecological functions: They produce woody trees, provide habitat and detritus food for fish and shellfish and act as spawning ground for a variety of fishes, prawns and shellfishes. They harbour a variety of valuable fauna, including migratory birds. They also protect the coasts from storms and tidal waves and help in the formation of land by trapping sediments brought by the coastal community.There are many threats to mangroves. Deforestation is one of the major threats.

9.1  Write True/False

Q.1    In the subject matter of order statistic, the useful beta distribution is written as :

The distribution systems are designed to ensure that processed fluid milk is stored and transported under optimal conditions, maintaining its quality and freshness until it reaches consumers. An effective distribution system for processed fluid milk involves careful planning and execution to guarantee timely delivery, quality preservation, and customer satisfaction. Given that milk is a highly perishable product, it requires meticulous handling and strict temperature control. Technology plays a crucial role in preserving its integrity throughout the supply chain. The use of technology reduces human error, increase the efficiency of distribution operations, and lower operational costs by preventing idle resources through coordinated logistics for both outbound and inbound trips.
To address the specific demands of manufacturing, packaging, distribution, and transportation, integrated business process automation solutions are implemented. These solutions include following features:
• Identify and define the most efficient delivery routes, reducing transportation costs and ensuring timely delivery.
• Scheduling and monitoring of delivery routes to maintain optimal delivery speeds, and manage loading and unloading processes so as to minimize exposure to adverse conditions. Automated solutions and tools help maintain the required temperature conditions throughout the entire supply chain.
• Verify and document supplier practices to ensure that all partners in the supply chain adhere to the agreed-upon temperature standards. Store the temperature-related data to help in auditing and analysis, and continuous improvement of the cold chain process.
• Shelf life and expiration date management is a critical component in  the storage and transport of dairy products. Proper management ensures that dairy products remain safe for consumption and retain their quality throughout the distribution chain.

The economics of distribution “accounts for the sharing of the wealth produced by a community among the agents of the owners of the agents which have been active in its production”.

- Chapman

The division of the national dividend or aggregate national income among the different agents of production viz., rent for land, wage for labour, interest for capital and proft for entrepreneur is termed as distribution in economics.

Factor Market

A factor market is a market where factors of production are bought and sold. Factor markets allocate factors of production, including land, labour and capital, and distribute income to the owners of productive resources, such as wages, rents, etc.

In the factor market it is not acres of land which is being bought or sold but the services of land. Similarly neither the labour nor capital goods are being bought and sold but the services of labour and capital. Thus rent is not the price of land but

ABSTRACT

The genus Aconitum is in the limelight of the current scenario of the pharmacopeia and has became the centre of attention in the field of herbal medicines, as is manifested with various biological and pharmacological cores which make the genus most imperative. For vast decades some species of the genus Aconitum and its derivatives were considered as vizulently fatal but were liquidated as intact drug elites through traditional as well as modern system of medicine. The retrospection of the validated information in account of the genus Aconitum represent a pioneering approach to corroborate the scientific studies on almost everyaspect of the herbal genusAconitum, as a number of species belonging to this genus has been enlisted in the Red Data Book of IUCN which have been renowned for their medicinal benefits in various systems of medicine. The tubers some species of Aconitum contain lethal diterpene alkaloids such as aconitine, mesaconitine, and hypaconitine, which easily can be directed into screened harmless alkaloids such as benzoylaconine, aconine, and pyroaconine by heating or alkaline treatment. Currently, the processed tubers are widely and safely practiced for the remedyof pain, neuronal disorders, inflammation, and rheumatism and have a huge therapeutic index for curing ailments like hysteria, throat infection, dyspepsia, abdominal pain, diabetes and also as a cardiac depressant in massive arterial tension of cardiac origin. An important component extracted from some species of Aconitum, Lycaconitine has been found to be effective against multi-drug resistant cancers. The di-terpenoid alkaloids of aconite source and their increasing demand for the active compounds used in different systems of medicine has led to overharvesting of the tubers, resulting in rapid depletion of the natural stocks of this valuable plant. As a consequence, the genus is now on the list of rare and threatened species. Since the commercial demand of this important medicinal plant is very high and hence needs to be conserved as the species density of this genus has been threatned due to many factors. As such diverse efficient and standardized protocols for its regeneration like micropropagation, somatic embryogenesis and some other conventional efforts like storage of seeds as a means of ex-situ conservation must be attributed on the aspects of conservationof genusAconitum. The exploitation of population genetic diversity will provide useful information for the biological conservation of these esteemed species of Aconitum in the regions . Since a complete revision of the genus Aconitum in the region has not yet been carried out and the high level of endemism and a lack of relevant information of the genus Aconitum have made its various scientific studies a very interesting object. The scientific and systematic information about the genus Aconitum generated demands validation as only a little attention has been done on its various aspects from cultivation, conservation, phytochemistry and pharmacological evaluation to the molecular characterization. Consequently species specific measures are needed and a lot of important attributes has to be assigned to the species of this genus which will ultimately help to ensure simultaneously both conservation as well as sustainability in raw material production of the genus.

15.1. Meaning
While doing production of goods, the producer coordinates different factors of production i.e., land, labour, capital and management. In the process of distribution the returns obtained through the production activity are apportioned to these factors that are employed in the production process. Consequently land gets rent, labour gets wages and interest is paid to capital and finally organization is rewarded with profit. Such an apportionment of returns among different factors of production is called distribution. It is also called factor pricing.
15.1.2. Rent
Rent is the return for the fertility status of the land. In fact the land is defined in a broad sense. All the natural resources existing on the surface and beneath the surface of land like mines, rivers, etc., are also treated as land, from which rent is received. Some resources are publicly owned, while others are privately owned. Rent is almost zero for publicly owned resource because one cannot use it for one’s own purpose. These are meant for public welfare. Rent is expressed in two forms i.e., one is economic rent and the other is contract rent.
15.1.3. Economic Rent
Economic rent is the rent received exclusively from the use of land only. We use the term, exclusively because the rent of a building referred as the return obtained by the owner on the capital invested in the construction of building as well as the land. It is the return obtained from the combined values of both. In that case, it no longer qualifies as rent. In farming the rent paid by a tenant to the landlord is not economic rent.

Introduction

There is different type of distributors available in the market. Depending on the basic principle of working they may be broadly classified into three major groups as below (FAO, 1980).

i. Distributors in which head loss takes place through small diameter tubes

ii. Distributors in which head loss takes place through some orifice control

iii. Distributors in which head loss takes place through a vortex action

There are many adaptations to distributors though the working distributors fall under the above stated basic principle. Tiny perforation in the laterals or porous materials allows leaking out the water serves the purpose of distributors. The compensating type distributors have long path in it to dissipate the energy and drips almost same rate within certain range of pressure variation. Whatever may be the distributors proposed to be used, the discharge characteristics should be known. The discharge characteristics should be provided by the manufacturers and preferably certified by any authorized body; otherwise to be tested by the designer before recommendation to large-scale use.