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Introduction Palak (Beta vulgaris L. var. bengalensis), also known as spinach beet or perpetual spinach, Saag, Indian Spinach, beet leaf, Swiss chard and Palongpalang. is a leafy green vegetable that is closely related to Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris). And it belongs to the family Chenopodiaceae. It is a popular and versatile vegetable known for its nutritious leaves and mild flavour. Palak shares similarities with both spinach (Spinacia oleracea) and beetroot (Beta vulgaris). The leaves of palak are tender and similar in appearance to spinach leaves. They are dark green and have a slightly glossy texture. The flavour of palak is milder compared to spinach, with a pleasant earthy taste. This makes it a versatile ingredient that can be used in various culinary preparations. Palak is often grown as a cool-season vegetable, as it can tolerate cool temperatures better than spinach. It is appreciated for its ability to produce a continuous harvest of leaves over an extended period, hence the name “perpetual spinach.” This characteristic makes it a valuable addition to home gardens and commercial production.

Introduction The popular legume crop known as broad beans, or Vicia faba in scientific jargon, is valued for its diversity and nutritional content. Broad beans have a long history that dates back thousands of years, and they have been used extensively in many cuisines and agricultural practises all over the world. With the use of references from reputable sources, this introduction will discuss the traits, cultivation, and health benefits of broad beans. Annual plants in the Fabaceae family, broad beans have a cool growing season. They originate from the Mediterranean region, but due to their resilience to various climatic conditions, they have been grown in numerous locations across the world. With a height of up to one metre, the plants are renowned for their vigorous growth. Large, podded fruits with many seeds or beans are produced by broad bean plants. Broad bean cultivation is a rather simple process

Introduction Garden Pea (Pisum sativum L.) is a small, round, green seed that is commonly eaten as a vegetable. It is a legume, which means it is part of the same family as beans, lentils, and peanuts. Its chromosome number is 2n=14. Peas are typically eaten fresh, frozen, or canned, and are often used in soups, stews, and casseroles. They are a good source of protein, fiber, various vitamins and minerals. Peas can be grown in a garden or farm and it is considered a staple food in many countries. Origin and Distribution Garden peas have a long history of cultivation and have been enjoyed as a food source for centuries. The exact origin of garden peas is believed to be in Central Asia. The distribution of garden peas expanded as they were introduced to different regions and adapted to various climates. They were brought to Europe during ancient times and became popular as a staple crop in many countries. The cultivation of garden peas also spread to Asia, Africa, and the Americas through the process of exploration and colonization. In modern times, garden peas are grown globally in both temperate and cool climates.

Introduction Turnip (Brassica rapa subsp. repifera L.) is a root vegetable grown in temperate, subtropical and tropical regions of India that is commonly grown for its edible root and leaves. The root is typically white or cream-colored with a slightly purple or pink top, and has a slightly sweet and earthy flavor. The leaves, which are also edible, have a slightly bitter taste and are typically used in soups, stews, and salads. Turnips are a coolseason crop and are typically planted in the spring or fall. They are hardy and can tolerate frost, making them a popular choice for fall and winter gardens. Turnips are a very nutritious vegetable, they are a good source of vitamin C, fiber, and potassium, as well as other minerals and vitamins. They are also low in calories and high in antioxidants. The root contains a compound called glucosinolate, which has been shown to have anti-cancer properties.

Introduction Beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) is a very popular herbaceous biennial root vegetable mainly grown for its edible roots and leaves, it is commonly known as Chukander in Hindi, but also has different local names depending on the area, for instance, it is called Bita gacha in Bengali, Bita in Marathi, Beet in Punjab, Salada in Gujarati, Dumpamokka in Telugu, and Bit in Malayalam etc (Kumar, 2015). It belongs to the family Chenopodiaceae (now Amaranthaceae). The chromosome number of beetroot is 2n = 18. It is used as a cooked vegetable, salad, and for pickling and canning. Origin and distribution The origin of beetroot (Beta vulgaris) can be traced back to the Mediterranean region and the Middle East.

Introduction The botanical name of carrot is Raphanus sativus which belongs to the family Brassicaceae having haploid chromosome number of x = 9 and is believed to be originated from Europe and Asia. Radish is one of the most ancient and popular leaf cum root vegetables in both tropical and temperate regions. Radish probably originated in Europe and Asia. Radishes were extensively cultivated in Egypt and ancient records show that radishes were eaten before the pyramids were built. It had spread to China during 500 BC and to Japan during AD 700. The recent study has indicated that east of Mediterranean region, most probably China is the centre of origin of radish. Wild state of radish is not known. Previously it was believed to haveevolved from a common weed Raphanus raphanistrum Linn in Europe but now it is believed to have been evolved from more a variety of sources. As it is a short duration annual or biennial crop, it can be widely used in sequence cropping, companion cropping and intercropping in widely spaced crops. Roots are pink in colour due to presence of anthocyanin pigment.

Introduction Carrot (Daucus carota L.) is a member of the Umbelliferae/Apiaceae family. Carrots is an important primitive cool season root vegetable crop cultivated in both tropical and temperate climatic conditions. Carrot is a significant winter root vegetable grown throughout India. Carrots are said to have originated in Afghanistan in western Asia, which is the principal source of variation. Carrots were grown in Asia Minor in the 10th and 11th centuries. It arrived in India from Persia in the 13th or 14th century. Its medicinal cultivation originated between 2000 and 3000 years ago. Carrots are a major root crop in European countries such as the United States, China, Japan, and India. Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Rajasthan are the main carrot-growing states in India. During 2020-21, India produces 1885 thousand metric tonnes of carrot from 108 thousand hectares of carrot production. During 2020-21, Haryana ranked top in both area (19.83 thousand hectares) and production (337.43 thousand metric tonnes) of carrot in India (Anonymous, 2020). Carrot possesses antidiabetic, cholesterol and cardiovascular disease decreasing, anti-hypertensive, hepatoprotective, Reno-protective, and anti-inflammatory effects. Carrot roots are rich in carotene, iron, thiamine, riboflavin, ascorbic acid, niacin, and sugar.

Introduction The leek (Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum L.) belongs to the Alliaceae family and is a non-bulb-forming crop. It is consumed raw by itself, combined with other foods in salads, and cooked as flavoring in soups and stews. It is a preferred vegetable in a kitchen garden but is not commercially farmed in India. Leek has chromosome 2n=4X=32, which makes it an autotetraploid in nature. It is a vigorous biennial herbaceous cultivar that has never been discovered in its wild form. For their blanched stems and leaves, leeks are grown. It is a biennial plant that is used to flavor soups and eaten as a salad. The leek was first domesticated in the Eastern Mediterranean, where it was later brought to middle Europe by the Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians. Leeks may have originated in Central Asia and/or Europe, according to several theories. Since the majority of the Allium species are found worldwide, their distribution within the northern hemisphere is not uniform.

Introduction Garlic (Allium sativum L.) belongs to the monocotyledonous family Alliaceae or Amaryllidacea; Chromosome No. 2n=2x=16. In India, it is the second most extensively grown bulb crop after onion. According to several botanists (Candolle, 1985; Dscalov and Popov,1941; Kuznetsov, 1948 and Regel, 1975) garlic was cultivated and utilised by Mediterranean population since medieval time. Origin, History and Distribution Central Asia, particularly elevated highland of Pamir and Tian Shan is considered as the primary centre of origin of garlic (Vavilov, 1926), however Caucasus and North Africa is considered as the secondary centre of origin. Allium longicuspis is considered as the wild ancestor of garlic. The history of garlic usage dates back to 3000 B.C when it was used in Egyptians tombs likewise its first usage in modern era occurred during 10th century in England (Shinde and Sontakke, 1986) and its first introduction in North and South America was done by Spanish and Portugese settlers during fifteenth century; introduction and usage of garlic in other European and Asian countries occurred subsequently.

Introduction Onion is a cool season bulb vegetable of high economic importance. According to Vavilov, Central Asia is the primary centre of origin; maximum species were found in the Mediterranean region in the West to Central Asia in the East. In India, onion was introduced around 600BC and from here it was introduced to the rest of the world. The largest onion-producing states in India include Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Bihar, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, West Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh, which together account for approximately 90% of the nation’s total onion output. The expected share of Maharashtra in 2019-2020 is about 42.53% in onion production with 11363.00 tonnes. Onion has highest export value among vegetables, the total value earned in the year 2019 was ? 2660.79 crores (NHB, 2020). Onion contains about 89% water, 4% sugar, 1% protein, 2% fat. It also contains vitamin C, vitamin B6, folic acid and many other nutrients in trace amounts. Onion bulbs and onion greens are used in various dishes all over the world in cooked, as well as raw form. Red and yellow onions are used in soups because of their sweet taste. White onions are traditionally used in classic Mexican cuisine and also for dehydration purpose. India, Mexico, U.S., Turkey, Pakistan, etc are the major exporters of onion while the major importers of onion are Malaysia, UAE, Canada, Japan, etc.

Introduction Chinese cabbage (Brassica compestris var. pekinensis i.e., heading type and Brassica compestris var. chinensis i.e., non-heading type) with chromosome number 2n=20 is a green leafy vegetable that has come under the same family Cruciferae as cabbage. It is also called as celery cabbage, Bok choy, Peking cabbage, snow cabbage, napa cabbage etc. according to the places. It is originated from China and later adopted to other countries, mostly in Asian countries. Even though not being a member of cole group, it is regarded as one because of the similarity in cultural practices, breeding systems, same growing season and many other features that resembles apart from being a brassica vegetable. The best planting season for Chinese cabbages is in early spring to harvest as a late spring and after mid-summer for a fall crop. The inner leaves of the plant are light yellow colour with long (oblong) shaped head which is covered by compact wrinkled, profuse and light green leaves. Generally, the crop has high nutritional value due to which its demand is increasing tremendously. The potassium content of the crop is high with low fat content. It is also rich in vitamin C, fiber, folate as well as beta carotene and calcium are also more as compared to the cabbage due its leaves colour

Introduction Kale (Brassica oleracea var. acephala) belongs to family Cruciferae or Brassicaceae is a under exploited vegetable crop. It is introduced in 19th century. Economic Importance and Uses Its edible part is leaves and contains amazing source of amino acids, vitamins and minerals which has many medical advantages. It helps in lowering of blood cholesterol level which helps in lessening the heart illness. Kale leaves is also rich source of beta carotene, ascorbic acid and phylloquinone. Kale is a nutritious vegetable that is rich in vitamins A, C, and K, as well as calcium and iron. It is also a good source of antioxidants and fiber, making it a popular choice for health-conscious consumers. Kale is not so popular crop in India therefore it confined to very few states of Northern India like HP, UP, J & K, Pb and Haryana.

Introduction Broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. var. italica) having chromosome number 2n=2x=18 is a native of Mediterranean region. The broccoli was developed in eastern Mediterranean region and Italy is the main diversification which was later introduced into England about 1720. It is a cool season crop which produces fleshy green flower heads arranged on branches sprouting from thick edible stalk in such way that it looks like a miniature bonsai tree. It has the same family as cabbage and cauliflower. Even though it resembles cauliflower by forming head like structure but it has longer flower stalks with loose large green terminal head (10 to 20 cm). In Italy broccoli is called as broccoli which means “the flowering crest of a cabbage.” Due to the presence of bountiful nutritious properties, it is also known as “Crown Jewel of Nutrition”. It is a great source of vitamins A, B and C and minerals like iron, fibre, calcium, zinc, magnesium etc. Apart from the minerals and vitamin it also a rich source of riboflavin, thiamine and niacin.

Introduction The ‘Brussels sprouts’ (Brassica oleracea L. var. gemmifera) coming under Brassicaceae family with chromosome number 2n=18 preferred by farmer for its edible green bud or sprouts (small heads that resemble miniature cabbages). It is a robust, slow-growing, longseason vegetable. The “sprouts” are formed in the leaf axils, beginning at the base of the stem and progressing upward. Brussels sprouts are high in vitamin A and C, as well as folic acid and dietary fiber. It also has anticancer effects due to the presence of sulforaphane. Similarly, to other Brassicas, Brussels sprouts contain indole-3-carbinol, which inhibit cancer cell growth. The temperate regions in the hills have the greatest potential for commercial production of brussels sprouts, followed by coastal regions with prolonged cool falls.

Introduction In India, knol-khol (Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes) is belongs to family brassicaceae with chromosome number is 2n=18. It is grown in north eastern states of India, J &K, West Bengal, Assam, Punjab, and other regions of southern India also. It is distinguished by the formation of knobs(tuber) is a thickening of the stem tissue above the cotyledons. This knob is picked for human use as a raw or cooked vegetable, while young leaves are also utilized in some areas. Economic Importance & Uses Knol-khol, also known as kohlrabi or German turnip, is a biennial vegetable that belongs to the same family as cabbage and broccoli. It is a popular crop in many parts of the world, including Europe, Asia, and the Americas.

Introduction Cauliflower Brassica oleracea var. botrytis) is a cold season vegetable cropbelongs to family cruciferous or Brassicaceae family with somatic chromosome number 2n = 18. Cauliflower is derived from the Latin word i.e., ‘caulis’ means stem and ‘floris’ means flower and wild progenitor is Brassica cretica. In India, cauliflower is grown in two different varieties: snowball type and tropical type. However, at first, other varieties of cauliflower, such as the European and Cornish types from England, were also brought to India. Later, the Cornish and European forms of cauliflower were intercrossed to develop the tropical type of cauliflower. The Indian type or tropical type of cauliflower can be grown in hot weather and high rainfall condition therefore, such type of cauliflower is mostly grown in Indian plains during the month of May to January followed by temperate type or snowball group based on the temperature based varietal classification.

Introduction Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) belongs to the family Cruciferae or Brassicaceae having chromosome number 2n=18. ‘Cole wart,’ a wild non-heading variety of Brassica oleracea var. sylvestris, is the ancestor of cabbage. The majority of the 100 species that make up the genus Brassica are indigenous to the Mediterranean region. It is also believed that Germany is where the true-headed cabbage originated. Currently, mostly cabbage is grown in the country like Caribbean, Indonesia, Malaysia, Central Asia, and Western and Eastern America.The third-largest producer of cabbage worldwide is India. The majority of the nation’s states where it is grown include UP, Orissa, Bihar, Assam, WB, MH, and Karnataka. Annually in India, cabbage was produced around in the area of 418 thousand hectares and production of 9.72 million metric tons with the productivity of 22.7MT/hectares (NHB, 2021-22). The other main producers in the globe, in addition to India, are China, Russia, Japan, Korea, the USA, Indonesia, and Ukraine.

1.1 Introduction Amaranth is considered as one of the “superfoods” of the coming century due to its exceptional qualities in various aspects. However, the crop is not a novel discovery, and it has faced quite a number of obstacles in order to get to where it is today in terms of nutritional status and acceptance by modern day consumers as a food which is able to provide nutrition. Despite the setbacks and disuse, Amaranth has had three redeeming qualities that have earned its standing as a “superfood.”In recent years, the grain amaranths have garnered increased attention because of their nutritional qualities and, in particular, the nutritional value of the seed protein. Amaranth seed is higher in fiber (8%) than the grain of most cereals.

1.1 Introduction In parallel with the expansion of organically cultivated land and low-input agricultural system, there is an increasing demand for crops that have promising potentials to be grown successfully in these systems. Buckwheat is generally sown in smaller areas, which may be found suitable for low-input agricultural systems. Buckwheat is a fast-growing crop with a variety of utilizations. Buckwheat, one of the pseudo and minor-cereals, has the ability to satisfy the rapidly rising population’s ever-increasing food need in the nation’s hill regions in the context of changing climatic conditions. It is also known as common buckwheat or Fagopyrum esculentum, it is not a cereal grain, but rather a seed that is related to rhubarb and sorrel. It has a unique nutty flavour that makes it an excellent ingredient in a variety of dishes. It is known in India by a variety of names, including ogal, phaphar, bresha, mittahe dyat, dro, and brotitae.

Introduction The world recently celebrated the birth of its eighth billionth baby, a major milestone in the development of the human race and the doubling of our numbers in 47 years. This tremendous growth has been driven by ambitious advances in technology and health care, soaring achievements of global prosperity and a longer life expectancy that has come to a staggering 72 years. However, the glory of these achievements is marred by how we are failing the lion’s share of the global population in meeting their basic requirements. Almost one in seven people on our planet do not have enough to eat. Food and nutritional insecurity are detrimental to human development and are a major brake on overall socio-economic development which downplays any major accomplishments we have made since not having enough to eat is an international security issue. Adequate food production, easy access and the capacity to buy food, relevance concerning nutrition and stability of these elements are all necessary for sustainable food security (Helland and Sorbo, 2014).