eChapters

• These are the injuries occurred to male animal at the time of natural mating. These injuries do not occur only to genital organs but also to other organs or muscles. • Most coital injuries occur to male animal with good libido (high testosterone level) but having aggressiveness and poor experience of mating. Such animals tend to quick response in the presence of estrous female. Some of the coital injuries are: 1. Balanitis and Posthitis • Trauma to the penis and prepuce which later on leads to infection and inflammation. • This occurs especially in young inexperienced bulls with great sexual desire • Adhesion may lead to phimosis or paraphimosis condition • IBR-IPV infection from cow genitalia after mating results in pus formation and necrosis of the penis and prepuce. • Prepucial eversion leads to laceration and bleeding.

Fertility is the ability of a male to impregnate the fertile female. The reduced or temporary loss of fertility is called infertility whereas permanent loss of fertility is called sterility. A male with low libido or poor sex drive may have excellent semen quality or a male with good libido may have poor seminal quality. So, libido has no direct relation with the male fertility. Male infertility can be categorized into Impotentia coeundi and Impotentia generandi. 1. Impotentia Coeundi • The condition of reduced or lack of sex drive or Inability to copulate (failure of normal service) is referred to as impotentia coeundi. • It may occur due to immaturity, poor experience to perform coitus, inability or unwillingness to mount, inability to perform intromission or failure of ejaculation. • The following conditions may reflect the immaturity or poor/bad experience of the male animal which leads to impotentia coeundi:

• Sexual activity or mating behaviour is innate character of the males. Unlike the female animal, male animal has a nature of sexual receptivity permanently. • Male gonadal steroid androgen controls sexual behaviour. At regular interval of 2-4 hrs, there is secretion of testosterone which converts into estradiol due to aromatization. Due to this very frequent rise in estradiol level, male shows sexual behaviour permanently. In female animals, a rise in estradiol occurs only during estrous. • When in a group of animals, any female can be mated with any male, it is called promiscuous sexual behaviour. Sexual behaviour in some animals is according to their social structure and territorial/home range i.e. male and female share some of their home range for the purpose of mating e.g. Roe deer, Muntjak antelope etc. In some animals, both males and females share whole of their territory for the mating purpose called a harem e.g. wild rabbit. Some animals come into a temporary territory meant only for mating in breeding season e.g. seal.

Libido • It is the willingness & eagerness of male animal to mount and perform complete service. It is sexual desire or drive which is an innate character of male animals. • Libido and mating ability have no direct relation with fertility. Libido is not related directly to sperm production and semen quality. • The libido of an animal depends on androgenic steroid hormone. Vasectomy or cryptorchidism does not affect libido in male animals. • Animals have no or reduced libido that are castrated before puberty. If the animals, that know the copulation, are castrated after puberty, they display the copulation behaviour for longer period. • Reaction time – It is the time between the contact of a male animal with female animal to 1st false mount with erected penis. Reaction time is the good predictor of libido.

Puberty • It is the age at which sexual organs are functionally developed and gonads start responding to GnRH to start steroidogenesis and spermatogenesis. Animal at puberty develops secondary sexual characters with proper libido. • At puberty, the bull is able to produce 50 million spermatozoa with 10% progressive motility in 1st seminal ejaculates. It should be 100 million spermatozoa with 10% progressive motility in 1st seminal ejaculate in case of stallion. • At puberty, gonadotrophic cells are functionally developed in the mature pituitary tends to gonadal maturation. The steroidogenesis starts properly which leads to the development of genital organs and secondary sexual characters.

• To identity the normal fertile, infertile (Temporary loss of fertility), subfertile (reduced fertility), or sterile (no fertility) male animals makes the requirement of breeding soundness evaluation necessary. Infertile and sterile animals prove to be harmful for the economic survival of the dairy industry and should be eliminated from the breeding management system. • The breeding soundness examination is very necessary for the breeding management system as the ultimate goal is the achievement of healthy pregnancies. It is also useful for successful artificial insemination (AI) programs that involve the collection and cryo-processing of quality semen.

• In male animals, endocrine regulation of reproduction is mainly controlled by pituitary gonadotrophins and gonadal androgens. It is not the same as in females as there is only negative feedback controls in case of male while it is positively as well as negatively feedback control in females. In other words, the synchrony of pituitary gonadotrophins with gonads in male is non cyclic while in female it is cyclic i.e. even after castration (absence of androgen) the pulse frequency of LH and FSH is retained. • Sex Hormones are sex specific e.g. estrogen and progesterone work primarily in females and testosterone in males but sex specificity is limited as far as sexual behaviour is concerned. As estrogen injection in castrated ram recovers the maleness while testosterone injection in ovariectomized female maintain the receptivity for male up to a certain extent.

Anatomically the male reproduction system comprises of testes, scrotum, duct system, accessory sex glands, prepuce, and penis. Production of spermatozoa and male sex hormone are the main functions of male reproductive physiology. The Male reproductive system can be categorized as: • Primary sex organ – Testicles • Secondary sex organ – Epididymis, vas deference, urethra, and penis. • Accessory sex glands – Seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands/cowper’s gland. 1. Testes (Paired male gonads) (Singular: Testis or Testicle) • Testes are the primary sex organs. They are situated in the scrotum at the inguinal region with the help of tunics and spermatic cord. Opening of the scrotal pouch into the abdominal cavity is called as inguinal canal. The testis is covered with an extra abdominal tunic named as tunica vaginalis, tunica albuginea, and tunica vasculosa from outside to inward. The fluid filled in between the parietal and visceral layers of tunica vaginalis is responsible for the movement of the testis within the scrotum. The upper end of a testicle is occupied by the caput epididymis and the lower end is connected to the cauda epididymis.

Introduction Sea buckthorn berry belongs to Elaeagnaceae having 6 species (Hippophae rhamnoides, Hippophae neurocarpa, Hippophae salicifolia, Hippophae gonicarpa, Hippophae tibetiana and Hippophae litangenis) and 12 subspecies grown all over the world. India, is having its plantations in chilly and barren conditions of Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh. Berries and fruits are believed to have such bio-active compounds like antioxidants in them that it has constructive consequences on health of human beings. Moreover, they are been proven in lessening the cardiovascular diseases, age related issues,cancer etc. Berries of Sea buckthorn is an abundant provenance of these bio-active compounds. One of the major lipophilic compounds is carotenoid pigments. And the concentration of the same has difference depending upon origin of plant, harvesting period and weather conditions. Nutritionally, the fruits have a substantial amount of carbohydrate, protein, organic acids, amino acids, and vitamins. Moreover, it also contains bioactive compounds like carotenoids, dietary minerals, antioxidants, flavonoids, vitamin C, minerals, monosaccharide, organic acids, tannins, etc. Sea buckthorn plant parts are becoming one of the useful and promising nutraceuticals for the food industry and all over the world.

Introduction Diet and dietary component are proved to be the first line of intervention in prevention and treatment of non-communicable diseases by many studies (R. Vrolix and R.P. Mensink, 2010). Hence the interest has grown in development of functional food product in recent years which provides not only basic nutrients but also has health promoting and diseases preventing properties (Rozek et al., 2010). The Functional Food Center (FFC) defines “functional food” as natural or processed foods that contain known or unknown biologically-active compounds; the foods, as defined, effective, and non-toxic amounts, provide a clinically proven and documented health benefit for the prevention, management, or treatment of chronic disease (Martirosyan et al., 2015). Fiber is classified into two separate groups i.e. soluble which forms gel like substance when comes in contact with water and insoluble is a solid form that does not break down when exposed to water (web 4). Soluble fibers increase total transit time by delaying gastric emptying and also slow glucose absorption, which includes pectins, β-glucans, galactomannan gums, mucilages, and some hemicelluloses (J.H.Cummings and A.M.Stephen 2007). The American Society for Nutrition stated that cereal fibers are modestly associated with a reduced risk of type II diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular disease (Cho Qi, Fahey Jr & Klurfield, 2013).

Introduction Solid–liquid extraction process, has been extensively used for extraction of bioactive compounds from plant food matrices by using appropriate solvent, which can be used as functional ingredients and additives in food processing, pharmaceutical sectors, and others industries. Usually this extraction/recovery process is based on unsteady diffusion of compounds targeted for extraction, through the matrices followed by the dissolution of the extractable compounds in the bulk of the used solvent (Milic, Rajkovic, Stamenkovic, & Veljkovic, 2013). The concentrations of bioactive compounds in food matrices as well as in the extracts are generally low in percent, so extra energies are required to improve the yield of the extraction process while minimizing the overall cost. From the technological approach, extraction process is mainly associated with the operating variables such as solvent used, extraction technique, operating temperature, concentration of solid in solvent, and extraction time, and by optimizing these parameters extraction yield could be enhanced (Milic et al., 2013; Orphanides, Goulas, & Gekas, 2014).

Introduction India is a country of festivals and celebrations. Indian sweets enjoy a legendary reputation across the world. India is home to a number of delicious sweets that play a vital role in every Indian celebration. While gulab jamuns, rasgullas and kaju katlis may be the most popular sweets in the country (Pal Sanchari, 2016). Functions and events in India are celebrated with intake of sweets. Also, it is customary to sweeten the mouth in social gathering like marriage, birthday, poojas, etc. (Gulati and Misra, 2014). In the past few years, guidelines are formulated based on analyses of all published scientific studies on the consumption of sugars. In view of the rising prevalence of overweight, obesity and related disorders globally, in 2002, the WHO recommended that sugar should be less than 10 percent of daily calories. The consensus dietary guidelines for Indians in 2011 recommend less than 10% of total calories from free sugars per day. In May 2014, the expert panel of WHO recently recommended decreasing sugar intake to 5% of total calorie intake to combat obesity. A high intake of added sugars is a primary risk factor for diabetes. It is these added sugars in sweets that makes them palatable, but also does the physical damage. (Willet Brian, 2011). People have developed taste towards food in which fat and sugar contents are high.

Introduction Consumer demands for convenience and mildly processed meals with long shelf lives have led to unique and current developments in food packaging solutions (Dobrucka and Cierpiszewski, 2014). Additionally, the development of unique and creative packaging solutions that do not compromise food safety or quality is being fueled by the current retail trend and changing lifestyles (Dainelli et al., 2008). The widespread use of packaged meals has raised consumer demand for prepared foods like microwaveable dinners, and the growing popularity of smaller food packages all help to fuel the food industry's explosive growth in creative packaging (Restuccia et al., 2010). The rise in food-borne microbial outbreaks, which calls for the usage of packaging that possesses antimicrobial qualities while retaining food quality, is another major driver of new food packaging (Appendini and Hotchtkiss, 2002). The initial advancements in packaging were electrically powered packing equipment, flexible packaging, metallic cans, aseptic packaging, aluminium foils, and flexographic printing. A considerable movement away from metal, paperboard, and glass packaging in favour of plastic and flexible packaging was also brought about by the discovery of various materials such as polyester, polypropylene, and ethylene vinyl alcohol polymers.

Introduction Rice cultivation is a means of livelihood for a large number of people from the state of Assam, India (Saikia, 2019). It is related to the cultural aspects in rural Assam where people indulge themselves in traditional as well as modern ways of farming. Like any other north-eastern states in India, rice majorly dominates the Assamese cuisine. It is the primary source of diet in Assam. There are more than 100 varieties that are genetically modified breeds in which indigenous varieties contribute to 20 germplasm (https://www.rkbassam.in/). The different rice varieties of Assam have different culinary applications in both savoury and sweet cuisines. The intermediate and high amylose rice, parboiled or nonparboiled are consumed as staple for major meals while the low amylose rice is mostly consumed as snacks, breakfast cereals and desserts. The major constituent of rice is starch consisting of about 90% of the mass. Thus, the major compositional changes occurring in rice is due to starch. Starch is a polymer of glucose linked by glycosidic bond. It consists of amylose (linked by alpha 1- 4 linear chains) and amylopectin (alpha 1-4 & alpha 1-6 branched chains). On the basis of composition, rice is classified as high amylose (>25%), intermediate amylose (20 -25%), low amylose (7-20%) and waxy or glutinous (1–2%) types (Juliano, 1979).

Introduction A functional food is a food that provides alimentative beyond their actual nutritional value & are claimed to have an extra function by the addition of new ingredients or more of already present ingredients into it. Functional food have also become a part of our everyday daily diet & are told to offer potential various health benefits other than the widely accepted nutritional effects among them. (Roberfroid MB 2009). Many bioactive active compounds are contained by them like roughage, OS, vitamins, inorganic elements, & bacterium probiotic, having scented whiff, relish & fineness, which sustain the balance & balance of the enteric system. Functional may also be said as artificer‘s foods, NC, restorative foods, curative food, & super food etc because of the roles & functions they perform. (Wlodzimierz Grajek et al., 2008). There are many utilitarian sequels of functional food & beverages with added bug & probiotics on the health of humans which are increasingly promoted & recommended by the nutritionists & other we-being professionals. (Aditya Chaudhary 2019). For a time being, the most salient & over & over again used functional foods amalgam are probiotics & probiotics, or they altogether called as symbiotic‘. he dwell Microbes or foods microbes, which are beneficial for human, are probiotics. (Armachius James &Yousheng Wang 2019).

Introduction The onion (Allium cepa) is one of the world's oldest cultivated crops, with a history dating back over 5,000 years (Gorrepati et al., 2014). At present, India is one of the world's largest producers and exporters of onions. At the time, India ranked second in onion production with a yearly production of around 23262 TMT and an average yield of 18.10 MT/ha (Prajapati and Saini, 2019; Horticulture Statistics at a Glance, 2018; Tripathi and Lawande, 2016). Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Jharkhand and Telangana are the major onion producing states in India. Maharashtra alone covers 55-60% of countries total production. Solapur, Satara, Dhule, Jalgoan, Osmanabad, Beed, Latur, Aurangabad are the major onion producing districts in Maharashtra (Tripathi et al., 2005). Unfortunately, India witnessed around 40-50% post-harvest losses of onions every year (Prajapati and Saini, 2019).

Introduction Flavour has a significant impact on consumer pleasure and subsequent food intake. Chemical synthesis or extraction are used to create the majority of accessible fragrance molecules. Synthetic flavourings are frequently shunned by customers who believe that hese compounds are harmful or pose a health risk to them. (Teixeira et al., 2004). The association between flavour stability and food quality and acceptance has piqued researchers' interest, yet it's tough to control. Food manufacturing and storage procedures, packaging materials, and ingredients frequently alter overall flavour by lowering the intensity of aroma compounds or introducing off-flavor components (Lubbers et al.,1998). Because there are so many variables in flavours, they constitute extremely complicated systems. Some are more stable in water soluble carbohydrates, whereas others are more stable in lipid-based coatings. Physico-chemical characteristics, concentration, and interactions of volatile aroma molecules with food components are just a few of the aspects that determine the overall quality of the food. It's a good idea to encapsulate volatile components before using them in foods or beverages to prevent fragrance degradation or loss during processing and storage. Encapsulation is the process of coating or encasing one material or a mixture of components into another material or system. The coating substance is known as shell, wall material, carrier, or encapsulant, and the coated material is known as active or core material.

Introduction In latest years, there has been an upsurge in customer situation over using artificial colorants in foods, especially on the subject of healthiness and safety issues (Amchova, Kotolova, & Ruda-Kucerova, 2015). Dietary colorants have been banned or regulated by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and various other national authorities throughout the world because to their confirmed or suspected link to enhanced cancer progression or adverse reactions. For the same motives, various pigments are being investigated and are most effective provisionally authorized at this time. Consequently, the use of natural additives in food production is becoming increasingly popular among food companies (Schwartz, Joachim, & Giusti, 2007). Red C-PE is the most extensively used colour and has various application in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries; however, because they are rare in nature, they must be synthesized. Therefore, the food sector is expressing an increasing interest in the finding, application, and stabilizing of natural red colorants, which are currently in high demand. A growing number of commercial companies are turning to cyanobacteria for colour extraction, including Spirulina sp. for the extraction of Phycoerythrin, Haematococcus sp. for the extraction of astaxanthin pigments, and Dunaliella sp. for the extraction of beta-carotene pigments (Sharma et al., 2021).

Introduction In today’s environment, the greatest challenge for the food industry is to develop health promoting foods; it is determined by the raw materials used and its impact on consumer health. Furthermore, people lifestyle has changed greatly, resulting in a change in food eating patterns. In today’s world, people are moving towards eating foods that are nutrient base and tasty (Bonciu, 2018). of all the nutrient based products available in market, expanded snacks have become a popular snack all over the world because of its crunchy texture and low density making it consumer’s acceptance (Grasso, 2020). The basic idea for developing any expanded snacks is utilizing a starch-based material for a better crispy and crunchy product, but to make it more nutritious incorporation of protein and fibre rich raw materials is recommended (Gu et al., 2017). Along with the raw materials, the other important parameters for developing any extruded product is the particle of the flour, its physicochemical and rheological properties of the extrudates are much concentrated (Bouasla & Wójtowicz, 2021) Thereby, extruded snack is considering as functional food with major health benefits.

Introduction Noodles have received importance worldwide due to their particular taste, flavor, convenience, consumer acceptance, and low cost. The noodles generally come under the category of unhealthy and junk food because of high carbohydrate content and low vitamins, minerals, and fiber content (Park et al., 2011). Due to the increasing popularity of instant noodles, many people are becoming more prone to various health problems. The substitution of various ingredients to wheat flour noodles is increasing by incorporating different pulses, cereals, and pseudocereals to improve the nutritional properties and also make them health food. Among the pseudocereals, the use of amaranth and chia seeds in food products has been increasing because of their high nutritional value and good health benefits. Their proteins have well-balanced amino acids with a high content of essential amino acids and also good bioavailability (Lopez et al., 2019). These pseudocereals are also gaining importance due to their high content of phytochemicals and other macromolecules. The amaranth (Amaranthus sp) seeds are spherical and small, having approximately 1 mm diameter with a creamish to light reddish color. The composition of amaranth flour includes amylose (7.05%), proteins (15.27%), fat (7.33%), crude fiber (2.04%), and ash (2.93%) (Siwatch et al., 2019).