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Mango (Mangifera indica Linn.) (Family-Anacardiaceae) is one of the most popular tropical and sub-tropical fruit crops in India and is well known as the “King of Fruits”. Mango is the national fruit of India and Pakistan as well as national tree of Bangladesh. It is cultivated worldwide in 49.46 lakh hectares with a production of 371.20 lakh tonnes. In India, the crop is cultivated in the largest area of 23.12 lakh hectares among all the countries in the world and production is around 150.30 lakh tonnes, contributing 40.48% of the total world production. India exports 59.22 thousand tonnes of mangoes to 40 different countries worldwide, valuing Rs. 162.92 crores (Anonymous, 2019).

With Judicious Use of Herbicides

Herbicides are the chemicals used for killing or suppressing the growth of weed plants from field / horticulture / plantation crops as well as non-cropped areas/ water bodies etc. The herbicide is said to be an ideal herbicide when it is very safe to the crop on which it is applied and on the other hand, it must control all associated weeds effectively. Also, ideal herbicides should leave no residual effects on the succeeding crop(s). Herbicides are of two types i.e.

1. Selective herbicides and
2. Non-selective herbicides.

A selective herbicide is that which is very safe to crop plants but unsafe to weed plants e.g. atrazine in maize, clodinafop in wheat etc. On the other hand, non-selective herbicides are those which kill all green plants including crop and weed plants which come in their contact e.g. paraquat and glufosinate ammonium.

With the current food production level of 275.11 million tonnes, India has to step up food grain production by next decade to feed the burgeoning population (Report Ministry of Agriculture). India with 2.3% of the global geographical area, supports about 16.8% human population, 20% of the world’s livestock. However, per capita availability of land for producing agricultural commodities has declined from 0.34 ha in 1951 to about 0.23 ha in 1980 and 0.15 ha in 0.15 ha during 2015 and it is expected to decline further to about 0.09 ha by 2050 A.D. With the possibility of horizontal expansion or putting more land under cultivation being remote, further augmentation in yield in Indian agriculture will be forced more and more into marginal or problematic soils accompany about 57% geographical area with increasing competition for good quality lands.

With the sharp development of urban and industrial growth, the area under agriculture is declining year by year. On the other hand, human and animal population is increasing at a very fast rate. So, to meet the growing demand of food and fodders, a vertical increase in yield is required. Crop productivity per unit area can be enhanced with the manipulations of some agronomist practices such as sowing the crops at appropriate time, selection of suitable field for raising a crop, adoption of best planting techniques, use of appropriate seed rates, adoption of proper irrigation schedule, proper and need based application of fertilizers, adoption of zero till technology, green manuring, mulching, addition of well decomposed farm yard manure, timely and proper weed management, selection of recommended crops and crop varieties, proper control of insects and pests, adoption of marketing tips etc.

Essential elements for plant growth

A large number of mineral elements are present in plants, but they do not require all these for growth. Out of the 107 elements in the periodic table, 90 elements are naturally occurring in plants and out of which only 17 elements are essential for plant growth.

Although common sense goes a long way in defining the concept of an essential element, Arnon and Stout in 1939, stated that an essential element should fulfil following criteria:

1. A deficiency in absence of the elements should make it impossible for the plant to complete its lifecycle.
2. Must not be replaceable by another element.
3. Must be directly involved in plant metabolism, that is, it must be required for a specific physiological function.

   To Arnon and Stout’s three requirements for essential elements should be added a fourth:

Water is indispensable for human, animal and plant life. It is a major component of all organisms some of which contain more than 90% of water. Water is a constituent of protoplasm. It maintains turgidity of cells which is essential for stomatal opening, expansion of cells and for different physiological processes. Water is also required for translocation of nutrients and dissipation of heat.

16.1 Irrigation

Irrigation is generally defined as the artificial application of water to soil for the purpose of supplying the moisture essential for plant growth.

However, a broader and more inclusive definition of the term irrigation is the application of water to the soil for any number of the following six purposes —

1. To add water to soil to supply the moisture essential for plant growth.
2. To provide crop insurance against short duration drought.
3. To cool the soil and atmosphere, thereby making more favourable environment for crop growth.
4. To wash out or dilute salts in the soil.

Dryland agriculture refers to cultivation of crops entirely under natural rainfall without irrigation. It is a form of subsistence farming in the regions where deficit of the soil moisture retards the growth of water consuming crops like rice (Oryza sativa), sugarcane etc. Dryland areas are characterized by low and erratic rainfall and no assured irrigation facilities. Dryland agriculture is important for the economy as most of the coarse grain crops, pulses, oilseeds, and raw cotton are grown on these lands. Dryland areas receive annual rainfall between 500 and 1200 mm.

Types of Dryland Agriculture

Depending on the amount of rainfall received, dryland agriculture has been grouped into three categories:

Dry farming: It is production of crops without irrigation in areas where annual rainfall is less than 750 mm. Crop failures are more frequent under dry farming condition owing to prolonged dry spells during crop period. The growing season is less than 200 days. It is generally practiced in arid regions of the country

According to Watson, bio-herbicides are living entities (natural enemies) used deliberately to suppress the growth or reduce the population of a weed species. This may include an insect; a microbe or a parasite nematode. These organisms operate directly or indirectly (by producing toxins) and their mode of action proves deleterious to the weed species. The latter toxins are termed bio rationals, phytotoxins or natural herbicides and are excluded in the definition.Bio-herbicides are formulations containing plant pathogens capable of mass production in vitro that are applied directly to target weeds uniformly to kill or suppress their growth. This method employs the annual release of a bio-agent into specific weed infested fields to infest and kill susceptible weeds. At present only the potential use of fungal pathogens as mycoherbicide has been studied in depth. Exploitation of bacteria seems promising where use of viruses as biocontrol agents are problematic since they are not host specific and require vector for their transmission.

As per United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), organic farming is defined as a system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic inputs (such as fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, feed additives etc.) to a maximum extent and feasible rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manure, off farm organic waste, mineral grade rock additives and biological system of nutrient mobilization and plant protection. FAO suggested that organic agriculture is a unique production management system which promotes and entrance agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity and this is accomplished by using on-farm agronomic, biological and mechanical methods is exclusion of all synthetic off-farm inputs.

Agriculture is not only the main source of employment, income and food for over 70% of the population but also the main culture of the rural families. But the linear growth in population and unplanned colonization lead to rapid fragmentation of land holdings and shrinkage in fertile cultivated land. In India, more than 70% of the total population of the country still live in villages and mainly depend on agriculture and/or related enterprises. Marginal and small farmers constitute more than 84% of the 115 million operational holdings in India which are cultivating only 29% of the arable land (Singh et al., 2011). 

11.1 Biomass

Globally, all agricultural countries have promoted the use of biomass sources for many household applications and biomass energy generation. Biomass is defined as the bio residue available from the sum of crop production, agricultural waste, vegetation, forestry waste and organic waste. Biomass is a renewable source of energy and contains a complex mixture of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen. Various biomass resources are available in different parts of countries and are classified based on their availability. The broad classification of biomass energy is in three formats; residue of agricultural crops, energy plantations, and municipal and industrial waste. Agriculture residues are organic materials produced as the byproduct from processing and harvesting of agriculture crops. 

There is no plant in this world which is uneconomical/not useful. Medicinal plants have been considered as important therapeutic aid for alleviating aliments of human kind. The WHO estimates that 80% of people living in developing countries rely almost exclusively on traditional medicines for their primary health care needs. Aromatic plants are used for essential oils - volatile material extracted from plants or plant parts usually by stream distillation and used in flavours and fragrances for food, soap, detergents, perfumes, lotions etc. Spices are the dry part of a plant such as roots, leaves and seeds which impart to food a certain flavour and pungent stimuli. Spices contain variable amount of fat, protein, carbohydrates, fibres, minerals and vitamins.

9.1 Introduction

According to FAO guideline, “Conservation Agriculture (CA) is an approach to managing agricultural ecosystems for enhanced and sustained productivity, improved returns, and food security while preserving and enhancing the resource base and the environment.”

The terms “conservation agriculture” (CA) and “resource-conserving technologies” (RCTs) are not synonyms, but sometimes both words are used for a similar meaning. Therefore, the practices which improve resource or input-use efficiency are termed as RCTs. RCT is a wider term than CA which is used for nitrogen-efficient varieties; fuel-, money-, and time-efficient techniques; and improvement in plot-level water productivity including CA.

Sugarcane, (Saccharum officinarum), perennial grass crop of the family Poaceae, primarily cultivated for its juice from which sugar is processed. Most of the world’s sugarcane is grown in subtropical and tropical areas. The plant is also grown for biofuel production, especially in Brazil, as the canes can be used directly to produce ethyl alcohol (ethanol). The by-products from cane sugar processing, namely the straw and bagasse (cane fibres), can be used to produce cellulosic ethanol, a second-generation biofuel. Other sugarcane products include molasses, rum, and cachaça (a Brazilian alcohol), and the plant itself can be used as thatch and as livestock fodder.

Pulses are high in protein, fibre, and various vitamins, provide amino acids, and are hearty crops. They are most popular in developing countries, but are increasingly becoming recognized as an excellent part of a healthy diet throughout the world. Pulse crops are one of the most sustainable crops a farmer can grow. It takes just 163 litres of water to produce 0.45 kg (1 pound) of pulses, compared with 818 litres for soybeans. They also contribute to soil fertility by fixing nitrogen in the soil.

Oilseed crops have been grown all over the world and are considered important crops due to their economic value. Oilseed crops are primarily grown for edible oil. Recently, oilseeds attracted more attention due to an increasing demand for their healthy vegetable oils, livestock feeds, pharmaceuticals, biofuels, and other oleochemical industrial uses. The increased interest resulted in an 82% expansion of oilseed crop cultivation areas and about a 240% increase in total world production over the last 30 years.

A cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis), composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. The term may also refer to the resulting grain itself (specifically “cereal grain”). Cereal grain crops are grown in greater quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop and are therefore staple crops. Edible grains from other plant families, such as buckwheat, quinoa and chia, are referred to as pseudo cereals. In their natural, unprocessed, whole grain form, cereals are a rich source of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, oils, and protein. When processed by the removal of the bran and germ the remaining endosperm is mostly carbohydrate. In some developing countries, grain in the form of rice, wheat, millet, maize etc. constitutes a majority of daily sustenance. 

4.1 Climate Change

Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. These shifts may be natural, such as through variations in the solar cycle. But since the 1800s, human activities have been the main driver of climate change, primarily due to burning fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas. Burning fossil fuels generates greenhouse gas emissions that act like a blanket wrapped around the Earth, trapping the sun’s heat and raising temperatures. Burning of crop residues also adds to climate changes

Examples of greenhouse gas emissions that are causing climate change include carbon dioxide and methane. These come from using gasoline for driving a car or coal for heating a building. Clearing land and forests can also release carbon dioxide. Landfills for garbage are a major source of methane emissions. Energy, industry, transport, buildings, agriculture and land use are among the main emitters.

The income of farmers is declining day by day due to increasing cost of inputs including wages of farm labor. The net income can only be increased by reducing cost of inputs and by increasing yield of currently adopted cropping systems. The income of farm can be increased by growing horticultural crops (vegetables, flowers, fruits etc.) as well as medicinal, aromatic or spice crops. However, these crops cannot be grown on large scale due to their market problems and involvement of high labor. So, in order to improve profit from ongoing cropping systems, some latest crop production practices are being discussed in this chapter.

Agriculture nowadays is facing a complex problem. It’s the rate at which we are turning arable land into non-arable. To solve this problem, we cannot simply stop farming and wait for the Earth to return to its natural state. Hence, alternative farming methods have become increasingly popular in recent years. Hydroponics is one of these options that can help produce crops without soil and other resources needed for crops to grow.

2.1 Definitions

Hydroponics is the term for growing plants without soil and in a water-based solution, the roots may be physically supported by an inert medium such as perlite, gravel, or other substrates. While it can be used to grow all kinds of crops, hydroponics is particularly effective for growing leafy vegetables, herbs and salad greens that have high water requirements, as well as for growing plants that have very shallow root systems.