eChapters

PGPR have shown potentiality against pests and diseases oc curring on crop plants. Wilt and collar rot diseases are caused by soilborne pathogens viz., Fusarium oxysporum fsp. lycopersici (FOL) and Sclerotium rolfsii respectively in vegetables. An attempt was made to manage the diseases with PGPR microbes and 142 PGPR strains were isolated from different vegetable crops. Among them two isolates viz., Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (BA1) and B. subtilis (BS2) were found highly effective in controlling the diseases.  Apart from the disease control, the isolates BA1 and BS2 also registered enhanced crop growth and yield in cowpea under field conditions. Species level identification of BA1 and BS2 was done through PCR amplification and sequencing of 16s rRNA. Both BA1 and BS2 clustered with Bacillus amyloliquefaciens and B. subtilis respectively.

Abstract

India is the prevalent prime producer of moringa [drumstick] with an annual production of 2.2 million tonnes of tender fruits from an area of 38,000 ha. Among the states, Andhra Pradesh leads in both area and production [15,665 ha] followed by Karnataka [10,280 ha] and Tamil Nadu [7,408 ha]. In other states, it occupies an area of 4,613 ha. Tamil Nadu is the pioneering state in so much as it has varied genotypes from diversified geographical areas, as well as introductions from Sir Lanka. Farmers found that growing moringa crops during summer season was remunerative. Thus, moringa gained a foothold as a summer vegetable. Its unique flavour and aroma became very popular. For South Indian any meal without moringa and pulses is considered incomplete. The demand for the moringa pod also increased due to increased urban settlements and migration of people to urban colonies. Based on the significance of moringa in the human diet this study might more viable with the specific objectives of to assessing the marketing strategies for promotion Periyakulam annual moringa seeds in Tamil Nadu.

Moisture deficit causing shortfalls in crop production is the characteristic feature of dryland agriculture. Other adverse factors viz., decline in soil fertility together with play of biotic stresses add to the complexities of dryland crop production. Added to the proven agronomic management to combat the problem of drought in dryland agriculture, there is the need to tailoring of suitable crop varieties which can yield reasonably well under conditions of moisture deficit (Varshney et al., 2021). In this context, the appropriate developmental rhythm along with the combination of the constellation of characters of the crop plant matching with the rainfall and the soil moisture availability patterns of the zone are the important considerations together with stability of yield (Hanson and Nelsen, 1980). This task being a complex one, the problem should be approached through multidisciplinary strategy that should buffer the genetic and breeding efforts.

10.1 Introduction

Rainwater is the main source of water for agriculture but its current use efficiency for the crop production is low ranging between 30-45%. The rising demand for water for non-agricultural uses is proportionately decreasing its share for agricultural uses. Efficient methods of water harvesting in the farm reservoirs including farm ponds and its management for subsequent uses in agriculture with improved water use technologies are vital for increasing the productivity and reducing poverty in rainfed ecosystems. It is not to be forgotten that the harvested water in the pond is a very valuable commodity. It may be used for industrial use or for irrigation in agriculture. The harvested water is also a good source to meet the water demand of domestic animals and for human beings (Fig. 10.1). The stored water of the pond can be used for fish farming, tree plantation, intensive irrigation to small area and extensive supplemental irrigation to rainfed crops. Stored water in a pond is developed resource and is, therefore, more expensive than the natural resource. Hence, there is a need to utilize it judiciously and efficiently.

Introduction

One of the most common concerns in irrigated agriculture is regarding water quality or salinity. Out of the ground water surveyed in different Indian States, as much as 84% is rated either saline or alkaline (Minhas 1996). Salinity management is very important for using saline water in irrigation safely. This requires an understanding of how salts affect soil as well as plants, of how hydrogeologic processes affect salt accumulation, and also of how cropping and irrigation activities affect soil and water salinity.

The objectives of management practices for getting optimal crop production with saline irrigation water include the prevention of salt build-up in soil which limit the productivity of soils and the control of salt balances in the soil-water system, as well as minimising the damaging effects of salinity on crop growth (Meiri and Plaut 1985). Amongst the various soil, water, and crop management options available, there is usually no single way to achieve safe use of saline water in irrigation but many different approaches and practices can be combined into satisfactory irrigation systems using saline water. The appropriate combination depends upon edaphic, hydrogeologic, climatic factors as well as social and economic condition of the farmer. Several practices interact with each other, and should be considered in an integrated manner, along with climatic and human factors. Because of the climate, the basic principles of saline water management need some adaptation, e.g. providing for a leaching requirement is not appropriate when the growing season for post-monsoon winter crops starts with a surface-leached soil profile, because it would increase the salt load. High salinities during the initial stages of growth are particularly harmful. Recommendations for effective management of irrigation water salinity depend upon local soil properties, climate, and water quality; options of crops and rotations; and irrigation and farm management capabilities

12.1 Introduction

The eggs represent very good basis that can be enriched with useful and beneficial substances and become functional food, since certain beneficial substances which layers consume in their daily diets transfer relatively easily into their products. However, enrichment of poultry meat and eggs can have adverse consequences in regard to their quality. Functional food is interesting also from the economical aspect, because it opens for poultry producers the possibility to introduce new products into their product range. Of course, main assumption is that consumers of enriched products are willing to pay premium price for these products, which is by 15-20% higher than average product price. On a global basis, eggs are one of the most recognized and accepted foods by consumers.

In order to assess the quality characteristics of eggs the book reference values were taken for comparison

INTRODUCTION

EGGS : Eggs and egg products constitute an important part of family meals. The economic importance of the egg to agriculture and industry, its multiple uses in the preparation of many food products, and its excellent nutritive value have stimulated scientific scrutiny into the nature of the egg.

STRUCTURE : The chief parts of the egg are the yolk, the albumin (the white), and the shell and the shell membranes. The yolk is more complex structurally than may be thought at first glance. At the very center is a light coloured structure called the white yolk. The vitelline membrane serves as the enclosure or sac for the yolk. The strength of this membrane is important when yolks and whites needs to be separated in cookery. Two important rather twisted membraneous structures extend from opposite sides of the yolk into the white.

EDS 76 is an infectious disease of laying hens caused by hemagglutinating adenovirus and characterized by failure to achieve production targets or by the production of thin-shelled or shell-less eggs in otherwise healthy birds.

This important disease caused loss of egg production for several years - vaccination introduced the disease and a new vaccine virtually eradicated it.

2.1 Introduction

The biochemical environment for egg production and ovulation egg fertilisation is provided by the poultry oviduct. The chickens have two ovaries and an oviduct when they are hatched, but the growth of the right ovary and oviduct stops and regresses over time. The left ovary and oviduct are still functioning and help produce eggs. The oviduct is a long tubular structure that is divided into five functionally and histomorphologically distinct segments: the infundibulum, which is the site of fertilisation, the magnum, which produces egg white components, the isthmus, which forms the egg shell membranes, the shell gland or uterus, which produces the calcified eggshell, and the vagina (oviposition or egg laying).

This chapter introduces the principles used to preserve egg quality and extend shelf life after laying. It examines deterioration mechanisms during storage, including moisture loss, carbon-dioxide loss, albumen thinning and weakening of the vitelline membrane. Refrigeration, thermostabilization, shell coating, oiling, controlled and modified atmospheres, water-glass preservation and emerging non-thermal approaches are discussed. The chapter also introduces kinetic shelf-life modelling and time–temperature concepts for predicting quality deterioration. Emphasis is placed on maintaining an unbroken cold chain and controlling temperature and humidity during storage.

6.1 Introduction

The egg production in the country has increased from 78.48 billion in 2014-15 to 114.38 billion in 2019-20. India ranks 3rd in egg production in the world. Annual growth rate of egg production was 4.99 per cent during 2014-15, there after there has been a significant improvement in the egg production with 10.19 per cent growth registered in 2019-20 over the previous year. The per capita availability of egg was 86 per annum in 2019-20. Less than a generation ago the main supply of eggs was from small backyard unit. Processors, handlers, and distributors of eggs and egg products need an understanding of egg-production practices to cope more intelligently with problems of product quality and character

5.1 Introduction

The egg production in the country has increased from 78.48 billion in 2014-15 to 114.38 billion in 2019-20. India ranks 3rd in egg production in the world. Annual growth rate of egg production was 4.99 per cent during 2014-15, there after there has been a significant improvement in the egg production with 10.19 per cent growth registered in 2019-20 over the previous year. The per capita availability of egg was 86 per annum in 2019-20. Less than a generation ago the main supply of eggs was from small backyard unit. Processors, handlers, and distributors of eggs and egg products need an understanding of egg-production practices to cope more intelligently with problems of product quality and character.

This chapter introduces the processing of shell eggs into industrial egg products. It classifies products according to egg fraction and physical state, including whole egg, albumen, yolk, liquid, frozen and dried products. Breaking and separation operations, liquid egg production, pasteurization, freezing, dehydration, spray drying and desugarization are discussed. The chapter also covers quality control, packaging and storage of processed egg products. Particular attention is given to balancing microbiological safety with functional properties during pasteurization and processing.

This chapter introduces the concepts of internal and external egg quality and explains the methods used to measure important quality attributes. It covers shell quality, shell strength, cleanliness, shape, albumen quality, yolk quality, air-cell characteristics and freshness. Classical indices such as Haugh unit, yolk index and specific gravity are discussed alongside candling and modern non-destructive instrumental techniques. The chapter also explains how egg quality changes during storage through moisture and carbon-dioxide loss and provides a scientific basis for interpreting quality measurements and applying them in commercial grading.

21.1 Introduction

The egg industry has grown quickly in the last decade as people’s eating habits have become more aware of the importance of good and nutritious diets. Eggs are now widely accepted as a good source of high-quality protein. Increased demand in consumer choice has resulted in a wide variety of egg selection available in the retail market. Eggs of high quality are needed to sustain niche markets for specialty and designer eggs–seeking consumers. Egg quality defines those characteristics of an egg that affect consumer acceptability and preference. The parameters for egg grading include shell cleanliness, strength, texture, and shape; the relative viscosity of the albumen; and the shape and firmness of the yolk.

19.1 Introduction

Quality has been defined as the properties of any given food that have an influence on the acceptance or rejection of this food by the consumer. Egg quality is a general term which refers to several aspects of both internal and external quality. Internal egg quality involves functional, aesthetic and microbiological properties of the egg yolk and albumen. The proportions of components for fresh egg are 32% yolk, 58% albumen and 10% shell. The quality of an egg is at its best when the egg is laid. There is no known method by which this quality can be improved subsequently.

This chapter introduces systematic approaches for controlling biological, chemical and physical hazards throughout the egg chain. It explains the seven principles of HACCP and their application to shell eggs and egg products. Prerequisite programmes, GMP, GHP, FSSAI regulations, international regulatory frameworks, traceability, recall management and risk communication are discussed. A worked HACCP plan for liquid egg demonstrates how hazards and critical control points can be identified and controlled. The chapter emphasizes that egg safety requires an integrated farm-to-fork approach rather than relying solely on processing-plant controls.