eChapters

(Method of Saryre, 1963 and IAEA, 1969)
Introduction

This technique helps in detection of very small amount of stable elements in fairly large quantitites of extraneous matter. Trace elements like zinc, copper, molybdenum and arsenic which exist in minute amounts in certain organs or tissues. For example, to detect the amount of copper present in one gram of tissue. using 1 mg of thin copper foil as control. Normal copper contains 69 percent ⁶³Cu and 31 percent ⁶⁵Cu. The (n,r) reactions on these two stable isotope produce ⁶⁴Cu and ⁶⁶Cu respectively. The half life of ⁶⁴Cu is 12.8 h and that of ⁶⁶Cu is five minutes. Therefore the latter can be ignored, if more than that an hour elapses between the end of the irradiation and the measurement. The specific activity of the unknown separate is compared with that of the known standard separate, and the content of Cu in the original tissue sample is thereby calculated.

Object: Estimation of water potential of plant tissue by Chardakov’s method.

Material required: Test tubes, sucrose or polyethylene glycol (PEG) 6000, methylene blue and dropper.

Principle: Concentration of the solution in which a plant tissue is immersed changes. If the solution is hypertonic (with lesser yw) the tissue loses water and the solution becomes dilute. If the solution is hypotonic (with higher yW) the tissue absorbs water and the Solution becomes concentrated. If the solution is isotonic (with yw equal to the tissue sap) the tissue neither loses nor absorbs water and the solution concentration does not change. Thus the yw of this solution gives the yw of the tissue.

Introduction

Water is the chief factor in fish farming. Water carries oxygen, eliminate metabolic waste products, through its physical and chemical composition, determine the success of production. The major constraint is that the waste organic matter released into water.

Measurement of pH, temperature, conductivity, salinity, transparency, turbidity and solids are important parameters to play role in water quality. pH in water changes during the day and night in response to photo-synthesis which is supported by the sun light intensity. Temperature is a physical parameter which effected on fish growth as resulting of many bio-chemical processes. It changes with the time depending on air temperature surrounding site.

18.1 Estrus Detection
18.1.1 Estrus Detection on the Basis of External Signs

The following signs are suggestive estrous period in cattle and buffaloes

1.    Partial inappetance due to excitement

2.    Drop in milk yield

3.    Restless ness of varying degree

4.    Frequent micturition with raised tail and crouching the back and lumbar region

5.    Marked bellowing

6.    Swollen vulvar lips- Due to swelling the wrinkles on vulvar lips disappear. The vulvar lips appear turgid and stand prominently.

7.    Congestion of vulvar lips 

8.    A clear, shiny mucus discharge seen at the vulvar lips extending down to perineal region and smearing the hind quarters. The discharge is stingy, having good consistency and no odour.

Estrus is referred to as the period of estrous cycle during which the female animal allows the male for mating. It is the period of estrous cycle during which insemination is done to female animal so that the animal will become pregnant. During estrus, cow usually seeks out the male and ’stands’ for him to mate her. In all domestic species, Ovulation occurs during this phase of the cycle but in case of cow, ovulation occurs about 12 hours after the end of estrus period.

The word estuary is derived from the latin word ‘aestus’ meaning tide and the adjective ‘aestuarium’ means tidal. This means low ground covered by the sea at high water.

Objective
To produce ethanol from lignocellulosic biomass (e.g., paddy straw)
through a series of biochemical processes pretreatment, enzymatic saccharification, and microbial fermentation and to evaluate sugar yield, ethanol concentration, and fermentation efficiency.
Introduction and Theoretical Background
Ethanol (C2H5OH), commonly known as ethyl alcohol, is one of the most important biofuels and renewable energy sources in the modern era. It is a clear, volatile, and flammable liquid that can be used both as a fuel additive (blended with gasoline to form gasohol) and as an independent energy source in modified internal combustion engines. In addition, ethanol is extensively used in the pharmaceutical, beverage, and chemical industries. Globally, more than 30 billion litres of ethanol are produced annually, primarily via fermentation of sugar-rich feedstocks such as sugarcane juice, molasses, and starch-based crops like maize and wheat. However, reliance on these food-based resources has raised sustainability and food security concerns. Therefore, attention has increasingly shifted toward lignocellulosic biomass, such as agricultural residues (paddy straw, corn stover, bagasse, etc.), which are abundant, renewable, and inexpensive.
Paddy straw, a by-product of rice cultivation, is a promising raw material for bioethanol production due to its high cellulose (30–40%) and hemicellulose (20–30%) content. However, the complex structure of lignocellulosic biomass, reinforced by lignin and silica, restricts enzyme accessibility to polysaccharides. Hence, pretreatment is essential to break down lignin and enhance enzyme digestibility before fermentation.

Apparatus and Reagents

    1.    Soxhlet extraction asembly. This consists of 3 parts (a) condenser at the top, (b) the soxhlet or extractor in the middle, and (c) the receiver flask at the bottom. The 3 parts are assembled by means of their grounds glass interchangeable joints (Fig. 1).

    2.    Extraction thimble.

    3.    Petroleum ether (B.P. 40ºC to 60ºC)

    4.    Constant temperatue bath or six heater hot plate with temperature controlling device.

Introduction
As information technology (IT) continues to evolve and integrate into every aspect of human life, the intersection of IT and sustainability presents immense opportunities and significant ethical challenges. These challenges arise from the complex relationship between technological advancement, environmental responsibility, social equity, and economic growth. While IT has the potential to drive progress toward sustainability, it also introduces new risks and dilemmas that need to be carefully navigated. The ethical concerns surrounding IT and sustainability can be broadly categorized into data privacy, digital divide, environmental impact, accountability, and the potential unintended consequences of technological innovations.

All scientists working with laboratory animals must have a deep ethical consideration for the animals they are dealing with. From the ethical point of view it is important that such considerations are taken care at the individual level, at Institutional level and finally at the national level.

Individually each investigator has an obligation to abide by all the ethical guidelines laid down in this regard at institutional level. The Head of the institution, maintaining animals for scientific experiments , should constitute an animal ethics committee on animal experimentation to ensure that all experiments conducted on animals are rational , do not cause undue pain or suffering to the animals and only minimum number of animals are used. The constitution and term of reference of the animal ethic committee should be well defined.

An animal ethic committee should include: a senior biological scientist of the institute, two scientists from different biological disciplines, a veterinarian involved in care of animals, the scientist in charge of animal facility, a scientist from outside the institute & a nonscientific socially aware member. A specialist may be co-opted while reviewing special projects using hazardous agents such as radioactive substance and deadly micro-organisms etc. The investigator may be called in for any clarification if required.

The ethics committee has to examine all projects involving use of animals before implementation, to ensure that minimum number of animals is used in the project and the ethical guidelines are strictly adhered to. It will also examine that the scientists and technicians handling animals possess adequate skill to perform the experiment. All animals should be maintained under standard living conditions and experiments will be conducted under proper anesthesia and termination of an experiment, the animal will be humanely sacrificed under anesthesia. Before disposal it must be ensured that the animal is clinically dead.

AI-enabled livestock technologies can improve productivity, health monitoring, animal welfare and environmental performance, but they also raise significant ethical and governance concerns. This chapter examines data ownership, privacy, algorithmic bias, transparency, accountability, cybersecurity, socioeconomic inequality and animal well-being. Precision livestock systems continuously monitor animals through sensors, computer vision, machine learning and IoT networks, enabling preventive decisions and automated interventions. However, excessive dependence on algorithms may reduce human oversight and treat animals merely as data-producing units. The chapter advocates an interdisciplinary framework for responsible AI that aligns innovation with animal-welfare standards, farmer interests, social values, equitable access, regulatory requirements and long-term environmental sustainability.

Introduction
The use of animals in scientific research has been a cornerstone of medical advancements for decades. However, this practice has also been the subject of intense ethical debate. This lecture explores the necessity of animal experimentation, the ethical considerations involved, and the regulatory frameworks in place to ensure the humane treatment of laboratory animals.
The Need for Laboratory Animals
Animal experimentation has played a crucial role in numerous medical breakthroughs. The importance of laboratory animals in research cannot be overemphasized. Among the various purposes for which humans use animals, experimentation involves relatively few animals and serves a noble purpose in advancing scientific knowledge and human health.
Laboratory animals are invaluable in the drug development process for several reasons:
• Similarity to human organ systems, metabolism, and enzyme functions.
• Suitability as alternatives to human subjects.
• Small size and ability to be reared in controlled environments.
• High reproductive rates.
• Potential for genetic purity, leading to reproducible and reliable results.
The Importance of Animal Welfare
While the benefits of animal experimentation are clear, it’s equally important to consider the ethical implications of using animals for research. The concept of animal welfare is embedded in the Indian Constitution, which states that it is the duty of every citizen “to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, rivers, lakes and wildlife, and to have right compassion for the living creatures” (Article 51 A (g)). This ethical consideration for animals has been emphasized by philosophers, spiritual leaders, and scientists throughout history:

An ancient Chinese proverb says

If you are thinking one year ahead, plant rice
If you are thinking ten years ahead, plant trees
If you are thinking hundred years ahead, educate the people

Subramanya Bharati, a great Tamil poet, wrote decades ago that nutrition and education were the two legs of a human being — nutrition for the body and education for the mind. We must, therefore, foster a movement for integrating academic excellence and social relevance in the curricula of our educational institutions. Our universities should promote the growth of the science of ecotechnology, which is the product of the integration of traditional knowledge with frontier science. This will need a mind-set change in relation to the knowledge and wisdom of our tribal and rural families.

In the 1990s, I developed the Iwokrama Rain Forest Programme, which represents the world’s largest adventure in the sustainable management of rainforests. The local Amerindian population welcomed me to Iwokrama with a song, which translates thus:

The credibility of academic publishing hinges significantly on the integrity of journal rating systems. These systems, designed to evaluate and rank academic journals based on various metrics, play a pivotal role in shaping research priorities, funding allocations, and academic career trajectories. However, despite their importance, many journal rating systems are criticized for lacking transparency and ethical rigor (Fig. 10.1).
This chapter explores these shortcomings, focusing on potential biases embedded in current systems and proposing solutions to enhance their transparency and fairness.
10.1. Role of Journal Rating Systems in Academic Publishing
Journal rating systems serve as gatekeepers in the academic publishing ecosystem. They influence where researchers choose to publish their work, how institutions evaluate scholarly output, and how funding agencies allocate resources. Metrics such as impact factor, h-index, and SCImago Journal Rank (SJR) are commonly used to rank journals. These metrics, while useful, often reduce the multifaceted nature of scholarly impact into single numerical values, potentially oversimplifying and distorting the evaluation process. The reliance on these metrics creates a feedback loop wherein highly ranked journals attract more submissions, increasing their citation counts and reinforcing their dominance. This system can marginalize smaller or niche journals that publish

Introduction

The term 'research ethics' in social science research refers to human values, norms, and society approved arrangements that regulate scientific understanding go for society. It consists of the set of values, standards, and principles that serve as benchmark to determine appropriate and acceptable conduct tall stage soft he research process. It is the implementation of ethical practices that specifies norms and values as well as responsibility towards the academic community and society as a whole. 

Code of Ethics was observed by International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature for renaming of homonyms. The commission had issues declarations or opinions from time to time, which together constitute the start of a code of ethics in the field of nomenclature. The first Declaration of the international Commission was as follows:

• When it is noticed by any zoologist that the generic name or specific name published by any living author as new is in reality a homonym, and therefore unavailable under articles 34 and 36 of the Rules of Nomenclature, the action is for said person to notify the said author of the facts, and give said author an opportunity to propose a substitute name.

• When the author of a newly discovered generic or specific homonym is dead, the discoverer is free to rename the genus or species as he likes. It is common practice to rename the category after the author of the homonym. However, this practice was never universal and it is not a matter of ethics.

Indigenous culture

Indigenous means originating where it is found. If knowledge originates from, and is bound to local experiences, taking its local world not perhaps as the only one, but as the most relevant of all they know may be called indigenous. Indigenous knowledge is human lifeexperience in a distinct natural and cultural amalgamation within a unique local and timely setting. It is an authentic appropriation of being, meaning that this very process happens exclusively in a given locality at a given time. In the field of medicine, Chinese culture (indigenous) developed Acupuncture technique. An acupunturist places needles into the skin to balance out the flow of chi which is believed to be the energy that flows through the human body. In theory, Chi runs along 14 pathways called meridains and when a patient is injured, stressed, or ill, their chi is supposedly being blocked. By placing needles in the Meridians the patients chi is thought to be put back into balance. Like Chinese culture, indigenous culture of different places/countries occurs and have their own belief and methods.

Indigenous cultures speak in various ways, for example we could speak from the perspective of our so-called ‘civilizations’ but how do we know that this perception is not contrary to the truth. We could speak on the basis of our traditional religious concepts but again these concepts may in reality be the opposite of what we believe. If we speak about the indigenous from the point of view of an anthropologist we arrive at a cold and empty language, a study that only pays attention to external and superficial matters, in the same way an anatomist analyses our inner organs or our bones but they are still a long way from knowing the reality. We believe that it is better to speak about indigenous cultures on the basis of their own reality, in relation to how they were as much as how they are now because in the course of time from yesterday to today many things have happened that are worth examining.

Introduction

In India about 8.6 per cent of population enlisted in the category as ‘Scheduled Tribes’ under Article 342 of the Constitution of India, but they constitute almost 16 per cent of the poor. Lakshadweep is the most populous state with respect to proportion of tribal to total population (94.8 per cent) whereas, in Uttar Pradesh tribal population is lowest with only 0.6 per cent of the total. In Odisha tribal constitutes 22.8 per cent of total population. In India literacy rate of tribal is 59 per cent as against that of general category is 69 per cent. Tribal people are observed to be strongly associated with the forests, hills and remote areas, practising a unique life style, having a unique set of cultural and religious beliefs. Over the generations these communities have evolved time tested farming systems, which are purely subsistence in approach and are keeping pace in perfect harmony with nature. Over the recent few decades, however, population growth and lack of harmony between different agriculture and developmental policies have threatened these traditional agricultural systems for extinction. The encroachment of local Governments and private interests on forest and mineral resources has pushed the tribal groups on to increasingly degraded land, thus their survival became a constant struggle.

The primitive societies have passed through several stages of economic development everywhere in the world. Thus one can find the stages of food gathering, hunting and fishing, farming, etc. among the Indian tribes. The tribes living in the forests and hills usually earn their livelihood by means of food gathering, hunting and fishing. Such is the life of Kadar of Kerala, Birhor and Kharia of Bihar and other tribes. The tribes living in dense forests, full of wild beasts, live on hunting, such as the tribes of Naga, Kuki, Bhil, Santhal and Gond. The hunters leave the females to carry out household activities in the morning and return in the evening after hunting. In some tribes there is a usual custom of hunting collectively. The Nagas use spears, arrows and bows. The Bhils are very much specialized in shooting by arrow. The tribes living near rivers and seas usually earn their livelihood by catching fish. The hilly tribes rear the cattle, an example of which are Goojars and the tribes of Chamba. The Todas of Nilgiri rear buffaloes. Some tribes also carry out cultivation, but they are generally shifting from one place to another. So shifting cultivation is an intrinsic part of tribal system and tradition. Among the cultivating tribes are the Santhals and Gonds. Tribal groups mostly do not have land ownership and have a limited option to adopt agricultural operations in forest areas. Considering their sustenance Government of Odisha has passed an Act “Schedule Tribes and other forest dwellers Forest Right Act” in 2006. It permits ownership of tribals on forest land up to 4 ha. for forest use and subsistence agricultural activity without any penalty. Cottage industries, such as weaving cloths, preparing ropes and skins and utensils of different metals are prevalent in many tribes. The Kharia people are very much specialized to cottage industries. Their living standard is very poor in spite of their hard work.

Abstract

Lichenized fungi or lichens represent the most successful symbiotic organisms on earth. They are the inconspicuous group of lower plants having numerous properties. Their different growth forms namely crustose, foliose and fruticose have been put to use in one way or the other. Since ancient times, they were used as food, fodder, dye and in perfumery. Lichens are a rich source of several important secondary metabolites because of which they are widely used as a source of medicine against several diseases and to improve the health of humans as well as animals. Most of the information related to the usage of lichens is gathered from the traditional knowledge holders. Therefore, there is a need to explore and document this traditional knowledge associated with lichens. The present paper thus makes an attempt to present and document the valued information on the ethnobiological uses of lichens from the Northwestern parts of the Himalayas, if not, the undocumented information will be lost for all the future generations. Ethnobiology of 39 species of lichens belonging to 08 families is being presented in this communication.

Abstract

Crocus sativus L. commonly called as saffron is a Persian plant belonging to the Iridaceae family and is cultivated for more than 4000 years. It grows exclusively in India, the Balkans and the eastern Mediterranean region. Saffron is traditionally used for, as a food supplement and its pharmacological properties such as antihypertensive, anticonvulsant, anxiolytic aphrodisiac, antioxidant, antidepressant etc. It comprises of the dried stigma which comprises of 150 different types of metabolites, of which some are responsible for the color, flavor and aroma of the Saffron. Saffron is a plant with great significance as an adaptogen and seems to be promising as a nutraceutical in barring several diseases. The current chapter explores the Ethnobiology, historical background, chemical constituents, ethnopharmacological properties, uses and toxicity of Saffron.